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AN 



INTRODUCTION 



TO THE STUDY OP 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



BT 

SAMUEL S. GREENE, A.M., 

PROFESSOR IN BROWN UVrVERSITY, AND AUTHOR OB" ** ANALYSIS* AND 
"KNGLISH GRAMMAR." 



Kes ante verba.— Com eneus. 



PHILADELPHIA: 

COWPERTHWAIT & CO 



.Gits' 



'O "7/ 



Entered, according to Act of Congress, in the year 1868, by 

SAMUEL S. GREENE, 

'in the Clerk's Office of the District Court of the United States for the District 

of Rhode Island. 



KLKCTEOTYPED BY MACKELLAR, SMITHS & JORDAi^ 
PHILADELPHIA. 



Gift 
Edton L. Whitney 

DEC 8- 1938 



PREFACE. 



The aim of this Introduction to the study of English Gram- 
mar is to aid the learner by a systematic course of exercises in 
his actual use of the language. He is expected to speak with 
care, to write daily, to observe the expressions of others, to imi- 
tate good models, to invent many illustrative examples, to amend 
all awkward, low, and unsuitable phrases, and to correct perse- 
vering] y every known error into which he has unconsciously 
fallen. In short, he is to begin upon his present fund of lan- 
guage, and improve it by revising, correcting, extending, refining, 
and elevating it. 

His present fund he has acquired almost unconsciously^ not 
from grammars or lexicons, but from his daily intercourse with 
associates and with the objects and scenes around him. Words, 
expressions, and modes of construction have come to him by 
imitation. He discovers their meaning and use by an in- 
stinctive glance at their immediate application. Correct or 
incorrect, he seizes upon and appropriates a phrase, simply be- 
cause others use it to express what he washes to express. Used a 
few times, it becomes a part of his language, and is uttered with 
as little regard to its merits or peculiarities as he is wont to 
bestow upon the properties of the air in the act of breathing. 

Language to him is an instrument for immediate and practical 
use, and not an object to be dissected and examined for other 
purposes. He employs it to make know^n his thoughts and feel- 
ings, his joys and sorrows, his w^ants and acquisitions; and, in 
the act of speaking, these and not words engross his attention. 
Place before him the elevated and classic language of the best 
writers, and he reads it in tones which at once betray his w^ant 
of sympathy both with the thought and the expression. At the 
same time he expresses his own ideas, in his own language, with 
S-pirit, and with accuracy of emphasis and intonation. It is lan- 

3 



4 PREFACE. 

guage thus employed which we propose to improve in the follow- 
ing lessons. 

To enlist the interest of children in their expressions, we 
must begin where their chief interests lie, namely, with objects, 
scenes, and pursuits which have occupied the wakeful hours of 
their busy lives, and especially with the vivid mental pictures 
which have arisen from them. Expressions derived from these 
are their own, and fall fresh from their lips instinct with thought 
and feeling. 

It is the use of language which chiefly concerns the learner ; 
its principles will gradually unfold themselves. He needs to 
associate his expressions directly with mental processes, so that 
he may pass, as in arithmetic, from process to principle and 
from principle to rule. He has not speculated upon language ; 
it is of no consequence to him whether a word is a noun or an 
adverb, if by the use of it he can supply his wants. In fact, 
what are commonly called the parts of speech are by no means the 
first parts for him to consider. He needs to regard his expres- 
sions in their more vital relations to his thoughts. He thinks 
of something, and tells what he thinks. He readily sees that he 
has an expression for that something, and an expression for what 
he tells of it. As soon as he can distinguish these two parts, he 
has not only made a decided progress, but has prepared the way 
for other divisions, till at length he reaches the parts of speech. 
Why should there not be intellectual grammar as well as intel- 
lectual arithmetic ? 

It is believed that the matter contained in this little volume 
will be sufficient for the majority of pupils who take only the 
common English branches. 

6. S. GEEENE. 

Providence, November, 1867. 



SUGGESTIONS TO TEACHERS. 



The following suggestions are offered for the benefit of those 
who may never have tried a course of oral instruction with a 
class of beginners : — 

1. In Part I., an oral exercise, similar in spirit at least to the 
Models in the Appendix, should be given, to develop the main 
thought of each Lesson. It is the surest indication of success 
in these exercises that the thought is so clearly unfolded as to 
enable the children to express it in their own language. Next 
follows the Exercise in the text. For a few of the first Lessons 
this may be given immediately ; at length it should be assigiied 
for study and preparation. To prevent routine ^ and to keep the 
intellectual processes fresh, the teacher should make use of new 
examples, as indicated by the blanks. See Eemark under 2, 
Lesson I. 

2. The exercises for correction are introduced to suggest some 
of the various kinds of error against w^hich the teacher is every 
day to contend. At first these errors should be corrected simply 
because they are bad English, Further on, they may be ex^ 
plained. 

3. For a few of the first Lessons, the teacher will do well to 
perform all the writing upon the blackboard, both for the Fjake 
of example and to avoid crowding too many exercises upon tne 
children at once. He need not, however, wait till Lesson XL 
before setting the children to writing. Whenever this is aone, 
he cannot be too exact in requiring the strictest attention to all 
the primary requisites for good writing ,—yus>\> as in all their ut- 
terances he insists upon correct speaking, 

4. Keeping in mind the main purpose of these Lessons, 
namely, the teaching both of correct and improved expression, 
and that in its immediate connection with thinking, the teacher 
will see how important it is to encourage the children to speak and 
write with the utmost freedom. Let them narrate any incidents 

5 



6 SUGGESTIONS TO TEACHERS. 

occurring in their daily experience, in their reading, or in the!< 
lessons. Let them learn to use paper and pen or slate and pencil 
almost as readily as they use the tongue. Let them answer ques- 
tions for review on any of their studies in writing. Let them 
express their requests to the teacher in a neatly written form. 
Let them write a description of the most common occurrences, — 
not as a task, but as a pleasant way of talking silently. 

The teacher should participate in these exercises, entering 
with interest into their thoughts and feelings, as the surest way 
to acquaint himself with their scanty resources of language, not 
forgetting that he who elevates the thoughts of children is sure 
to elevate their expressions. 

5. In the processes oi pruning and correcting let all participate, 
remembering that what may be regarded as odious criticism forms 
but a part of the work. One may suggest a better word, another 
a better combination, another a better arrangement, and still 
another a more refined and elevated turn of the thought, while 
the teacher acts as umpire, giving words of commendation and 
encouragement, and judiciously employing the assistance of the 
class in every criticism. A general sentiment in favor of a cor^ 
rect use of language should be encouraged throughout the whole 
school. It is well to put the defective and the improved expres- 
sions in contrast. For a time these contrasted expressions may 
be kept in a blank book by each of the class. They should 
often be put upon the blackboard. 

6. As the learner advances, less and less minute oral instruc- 
tion will be needed. Analogies and principles will gradually 
unfold themselves, so that he who has faithfully performed the 
work on the first fifty-three pages will be prepared to enter suc- 
cessfully upon a systematic study of grammar. Yet the work 
of correcting and improving should be kept up, and at all stages, 
in Part I. or Part II., every difiicult passage should be illustrated 
by an oral lesson. 



PART L 
ELEMENTARY COURSE. 



EXPRESSION^— OBJECTS, IDEAS, WORDS. 

LESSON I. 

1. These things which we can see^ feel^ hear, 
smelly or taste are objects. 

See Suggestions, (pp. 5, 6) ; also Appendix, p. 225. This pen is an 
object; you can see it. This watch is an object; you can hear it. Thig 
rose is an object; you can smell it. 

2. Exercise. 

1. Taking objects one by one from the desk, the teacher 
says, "What is this? And this? ? ? V 

The blanks, here and elsewhere, indicate a continuance of the exercise, 
at the discretion of the teacher, by multiplying examples. Beady, aiyt, 
spontaneous, and varied examples make the strongest impression. Prompt 
and spirited answers should be required. 

2. Then, pointing to them promiscuously, but with in- 
creasing rapidity, the teacher says, " What is this ?— 
this?— this? ? ? ? ?" 

3. Mention any thing which you now see m this room, 
in that street, on yonder hill-side, , — , — — . 

4. Listen ! What do you hear in this room ? In the 
street? In ? ? ? -™ ? 

When convenient, make similar appeals to the other senses. 

5. What do you call all these ? Can you see any thing, 

7 



ur do you know of any thing, that is not an objects 

What is an object f 

6. Pronounce correctly and distinctly the names of these 

objects : — house (not haouse), horse (not hoss), cow, elm^ 
^ivord, saucer, window, , , — , ' , 



3. Exercise. 

1. Taking an orange and dividing it, the teacher calls 
attention to its parts, — stem, j^eel, pulp, seeds, &c. &c. 

Observe how many pupils have no suitahle name for these parts. For 
\-^ulp, you will probably hear, the soft part, the juicy part, the meat, thai 
ivhlch you eat, &c. &G. "Whenever the children's vocabulary is found thus 
deficient, give them the word in common (not technical) use. The real 
lim of these exercises should be (no matter how incidental it may seem) 
jo give scope and precision to their use of words. 

2. In a similar manner name the parts of this slate, 

this knife, this book, , , — , , 

' ; that house, that tree, that carriage, , 



3. Correct the following expressions by jDutting a propei 
fford in place of the phrases in Italics. 

Father bought one of them things that the shoemaJcer sews 
with. That top-piece of the window-sash is broken. Them — - 
what do you call them f that they cut grass with are made of 
steel. 

How ma.By familiar things there are for which children have no name? 
And how many words they ieam to repeat, for which they have no cor- 
responding object or idea! 

The points requiring special care, thus far, are, on the part of the 
pupil, close attention, — a sing^le name for every object and every 
part, — the rig'lit name, and not a loiv or unsuitable name, — distinct 
pronunciation, and correct spelling'; on the part of the teacher, nn 
rnrnest and a persevering effort to call forth from the children improved 
modes of expression, by adding^ to their vocabulary, by securing 
precision in the use of words, by correcting all faulty utterances in 
their conversations. See Directions, 4. 



LESSON SECOND. 



LESSON 11. 

4. When we think of objects, they seem to 
be present in the mind. 

Here, the appeal is to be made directly to the child's experience. Can 
hfe wiD, in the school-room, call to mind, or seem to see, his home, the house, 
the (/rounds, the tree€, the shrubs, the Jiower-heds, the walks, the fence, the 

gate, the front door, the faces of father, mother, brothers, sisters, , 

^ ^ ^ ? Can he recall other objects familiar to him? 

He should be questioned just as if he and the teacher were viewing them 
together. 



5. Exercise. 

1. The teacher, holding up a watch, says, How riany 
really see the watch? Then, concealing it. How many now 
really see it ? How many seem to see it f particularly the 
crystal f the chain f the ringf the keyf the face F the hands f 



2. Can you now by thinking tell me the objects in your 
room at home ? — in the garden f in the valley near your 
house? ? ? ? ? 

3. Think of what you saw on the way to school, during 

a ride, , , , , and name the 

objects which you then saw, and now seem to see. 

4. Think of the house nearest yours. What is the color 
of itf of the blinds f the fence f How many stories has 
the house? Name any trees or shrubs around it. How 

wide is the front gate? How high the fence? ? 

^^ ? ? — ? ? 

What an opportunity is here afforded for cultivating the habit of 
careful observation ! How much vagueness of idea and indefniieness of 
expression will be readily detected and removed by a faithful and tho- 
rough inquiry after the conceptions which children are forming ! ObJecJ^ 
J!?ft have in common, but ideas lie concealed in the mind until expressed. 



10 Greene's intkoductiox. 

5. Pronounce, correctly, powder, hearth, beard, 



Let the teacher give amj words which the children are accustomed to 
mispronounce, and keep a list of them for frequent drills. 

LESSON III. 

6. That which is present in the mind is an 
idea. 

The formation of clear and distinct ideas lays the foundation for a cor^ 
rect and aj^j^feciative use of words. The remedy for defective ideas is to 
be found in asking searching questions (5, 4), making frequent appeals 
to objects, and insisting upon the use of the right words : — objects, ideas, 
words is the order. See Appendix, p. 228* 

7. Exercise. 
1. From the idea in your mind, can you give a descrip- 
tion of your kiteF top f skates! sledf / / 



2. Give the names of the objects in order, as you pass 
■from your house to schooL Are you guided by the real 
objects, or by your ideas of them ? Have you seen Bunker 
Hill Monument f What is your idea of it? of the Hudson? 

of a prairie? of a buffalo? of a schooner? ? ? 

? ? 

Questions like these will disclose hundreds of defects which nothing 
but seeing can remedy; they will show how powerless are mere words, and 
what can and must be done to fill the minds of children with just concep- 
tions. When objects have not been carefnlhj observed, the chain is no 
longer objects, ideas, words, but ivords and, probably, vague, faUe, un- 
finished, or inadequate (if any) ideas, with a conscious need of a fresh 
examination of the objects themselves. 

LESSON IV. 
8. To express our ideas, we use irords as 

Bims. 



LESSON FOURTH. 11 

Sig'ns, l)ecause ideas are wholly within the mind, and can "be known 
to no other party except as they are indicated by signs. 

Expressed, pressed out, as it were, from their hidden recesses in the 
mind. 

9. Exercise. 

1. What ideas come to your mind as I give you the 
word ice, sun, bow, arrow, egg, , , , 



Let the children give such descriptions of the objects as will show that 
their ideas of them are correct. 

2. What ideas have you when I give you the words 
threshold, lintel, helmet frith, anemone, , , 



How many such words children are daily repeating ! What ideas are 
associated with them? Perhaps none at all; perhaps confused and un- 
certain ideas; perhaps erroneous ones; perhaps the object and VaQ word 
may both be known, but not their connection with each other. The ane- 
mone is familiar to most children ; they have heard the name, they have 
seen the flower, but have never "known it by name." 

3. Read thoughtfully these lines from Whittier, as if you 
were by the fireside, and tell what ideas the words in dark 
type call up. 

The liouse-dog, on his paw» outspread, 
liaid to the lire his drowsy liead ; 
The cat's dark silliouette on the wall 
A couchant tiger's seemed to fall ; 
And, for the winter fireside meet, 
Between the andiron's straddling feet. 
The mug of cider simmered slow^ 
The apples sputtered in a row ; 
And close at hand the baslcet stood. 
With nuts from brown October's wood. 
Can you describe the whole picture ? 
4. Read thus any descriptive piece in your Reader. 

Ohfects impart ideas, but words express them. We may use objects, 
fJiink of obiects, or nneak ^f obiects. In reading or listening, words coma 



12 UREEXE's INTPwODUCTlON. 

first. Are they associated with dear and loell-defined ideas? Bo they 
point us to corresponding outward realities, — the objects themselves? 
The true order here is loords, ideas, ohiects, 

5. Think of the objects which you saw in the street, in 
the museum, during your walk yesterday, and give a word 
for any of them. What are in the mind when thinking 
of them? What do we use in speaking of them? What 
does the word express? 

Expl;4in the v^nncction between objects, ideas, and words^ 

LESSON V. 
10. To express a thcugnt, we say somethiiig^ 
of some ofoject^ 

See Suggestions, (pp. 5, 6). 

11. Exercise. 

1. Of what object do we speak in each of these exam- 

p]^g^? 

The star is twinkling. The bird is flying. 

The tree bends. The horse is trotting. 

Charles is a good boy. The owl is screeching. 

The apple is sour. The moon is rising. 

The duck is swimming. is hopping. 

The sun . is delicious. 

The horse . . 



Let the pupil fill these and as many more blanks as the teacher may 
ieem necessary. 

2. What is said of each of the foregoing objects? 

3. Point out ten objects in this room, and say something 
of each. 

4. Is any thing declared of the objects in these exam- 
ples? 



LESSON SEVENTH. 13 

The cold winter — the flying fish — the mouse in the 
cheese — the hen on her nest — the boy running on the 
wall — the door swinging on the hinges. Say something 
i f each object. 

Here, as in many others of these exercises, the method of contrast 
will make the distinction clear. Thus, if " the rain is pattering " a-ffinns 
something of the rain, do the words ^Hhe pattering rain" affirm any 
thing ? 

LESSON VI. 
12. The iDords used to express a thought form 
a senteiice. 

Thus, the words, " The sun is shining," form a sentence, because they 
say something of the object, sun, 

13. Exercise. 

1. Name any five things which you know of a lemon, a 

sponge, a dew-drop, , , , , and 

use each with the name of the object, — first so as to say 
something, and then so as not to declare any thing. 

2. Mention any actions performed by a dog, a fish, a bee, 

a bird, , , , and use the words so as to 

say something of these objects. What do these examples 
form ? 

3. Fill these blanks so as to form sentences : — 

The fox . The cars . 

The grass . The ice . 

The pen . 

LESSON VII. 
14. In a sentence we may say several tMngiii 
of one object;, or one titiifig* of several objects. 

Thus, we can say, The robin sings, hops, flies, and perches; or, Tha 
%pples, pears, peaches, and melons are ripe* 



14 Greene's inthoduction. 



15. Exercise. 

1. Say one, two, or more things of this orange, that 
horse, that tree, , , , . 

2. Tell the branches of the Mississippi, the months of 
the year, the days of the week, the names of the scholars 
in your class, the plants in the flower-bed, the books of the 
New Testament, , , , . 

3. Say three things that belong to three objects at once; 
as, the horse, the dog, and the fox can , , 



LESSON VIII. 

16.. To represent the object, or what is said of 
it, we may use one word, or several words. 

Thus, in the example, " Walter — sings," one word stands for the ob- 
ject, and one word for what is said. But in the example, "The knifo 
which I hold in my hand — was made in England," eight words stand foi 
the particular object, and four for what is said of it. 



17. Exercise. 

1. How many words stand for the object, and how many 
for what is said of it^ in these examples ? 
Gertrude plays. 
The sun shines. 
Lead is heavy. 
The smoke rises gracefully. 
The old fence has fallen. 
The oldest boy shall go first. 
A strong south wind soon brought a heavy rain. 
A rainbow in the morning is the shepherd's warning. 
My voice may reach a friendly ear. 



LESSON NINTH. 15 

Robert came trembling into the presence of the officer. 

The merry birds have left the bough. 

The glow of sunset was already fading upon the bordei 
of the sky. 

2. Fill these blanks, and then tell w^hat words represent 
the object, and what words show what is said of it. 

mountain rose in sight. 

billows W€re rolling high. 

~ boat was tossed . 



Shall class study ? 

See how much you can improve these examples : — They 
don't know nothing 'bout it. You hadn't ought 'o do sech 
things. Where be you goin' to ? Be them fellers agoin' 
with you ? Is there many on 'em with you ? 

Persevere every day in correcting similar expressions. 



LESSON IX. 

18. When several words are taken together 
(16) J one of them is priiicipal, and the others 
limit it. 



Thus, the word trees stands for any number of trees, but ten trees 
stands for a limited number of trees. Here trees is the principal word, 
and ten limits if, that is, prevents its applying to so great a number as 
before. Thus, we have trees, old trees, the two old trees in that pas- 
ture, this tree under which we sit. 



19. Exercise. 

1. Which may represent the greater number of ob- 
jects, — -peaches^ or Jive peaches^ men, or wise menf clouds, 
or those white clouds m the west f buttonSj or the gilt butto7is 
on that officer's coat F , - — — -F , --^ / 



16 

2. Mention the principal word and the limiting words 
in any of the foregoing examples. 

Let the pupil see, by examples, that the limiting word, when fre- 
quently prefixed, often unites with the principal and forms one word; as, 
^>er(inaii, i^/Astaiid, Aa»c/lierchief, Aear/aclie; — or, less permanently, 
with a hyphen between ; as, ^ye-boat, fre\(jli{-tr^\\\^ woud-^^w ; and 
without permanence, but with the effect of one word, when any limiting 
words cluster around a principal ; as, fAe-boat-which-now-lies-at-the- 
pier==o»e hoat, named by one expression. 

3. Tell the principal and the limiting part in these 
words : — 

Horse-car, dog-tooth-violet, humming-bird, hen-house 
eider-duck, egg-plant, snow-bird, fish-hawk, ground-squirrel 

4. Which of the following expressions should be united 
into one word, and which should not? 

The-blue-sky ; horse shoe ; a-ride-in-the-country ; pen 
man ; house plant ; tree box ; the white bear of the polar 
regions ; the-willow-in-the-meadow. 

5. Tell the principal word in each of the foregoing ex- 
amples ; also, the limiting words. 

6. Apply limiting words to the following subjects and 
predicates : — 

boys studied ; soldiers marched ; 

class will recite ; flowers are growing ; 

swans are swimming ; wheat is growing . 

7. Correct the following expressions : — A'n't there U'j 
more bread ? Bring me them 'ere pinchers. There is fiv3 
agoin' a'ready. See what them rabbits done ! He is the 
best player I ever seen. It was me that done it. I am 
afeard of dogs. Us fellers did all the work, and you done 
nothin' at all. 



LESSON TENTH. 17 

LESSON X. 

20. A sentence may be a statement, a ques« 
tion, a eommaiid, or an exelamation. 

Thus :— 

The child is crying. ...... A statement. 

Is the child crying ? A question. 

Do not cry, my child A command. 

0. how that child cries ! . . . An exclamation, 

21. Exercise. 

1. Make a statement about any five objects which you 
now see. 

2. Ask a question about five objects which you think of, 
or seem to see (6). 

3. Think of a party of children, or a company of sol- 
diers, and give five appropriate commands to them, as if 
you were w^th them. 

4. Give three exclamations about something which you 
now see, hear, or think of. 

5. Tell which of the following are statements, ques- 
tions, commands, or exclamations : — 

Is the old jail burnt? 
Where shall we go ? 
You know the man. 
Write just what you think. 
O, how sweet that flower is ! 
What a mistake he made ! 
Who came in this morning ? 
Well, he must correct it. 
The new house is finished. 
Observe these capitals. 
Come, boys, write your lesson. 
Notice all the punctuation marks. 
2 



18 GREENE'S INIRODUCTION. 

6. Change these examples from one kind to another, 
thus : — 

The old jail is burnt. How was the old jail burnt? 
Burn the old jail. 

7. Correct and avoid such examples as these : — 

Him and me is goin' to set together. He wants me 
bad. There a'n't no meat for you and I. Do you say, 
sittin\ readin\ writin\ coiiiM f Have you heard any incor- 
rect expressions to-day ? Do any of you say, ca-ow, sich, 
yender, e/, ^sposen^ you do ity wdl, Msn, hern, yourn, theirn, 
them's emf 



LESSON XI. 

22. A sentence may be spoken or written. 

In writing sentences^ observe the following Cau- 
tions : — 

I. Write just what you really think. 

II. Write your examples neatly and legibly. 

You are forming habits for life. Do not say, '^I am in haste.'* 

III. Be careful to spell every word correctly. 

You may speak words, and not spell them '. but when you write, yon 

must spell them. Many an important position has been lost by a few 
misspelled words. 

IV. Make use of CAPITALS for the first letter of 
every sentence, — of every particular name, — of names of 
the Deity, — of every line of poetry, and for the words 1 
and 0; and use small letters for the common words. 

The teacher will illustrate these rules, when needed. Nothing betrays 
a want of culture more than negligence or ignorance in the use of capitals. 

V. Place at the end of every statement or command a 
period (.), — of every question, an interrogation point 
(?), — of every exclamation, an exclamation point (!) 



LESSON ELEVENTH. 19 

VI. Be careful to use a comma (,) to separate the 
parts of a series, as in the example (141), — to separate O. 
or the name of a person spoken to, from the other words, 
as in the third and fourth examples (20). 

The teacher will illustrate by examples and give other rules when 
needed, insisting upon a uniform observance of them. Correct punc- 
tuation may be easily taught by drawing attention, one by one, to the 
constructions which require points. 

VII. When an erroneous expression of your own is 
corrected, write the correction in full, and ever after 
avoid the error. 

VIII. Never divide a syllable at the end of a line. 

IX. If, by mistake, a word or a letter is omitted, write 
it above, with a caret (a) below. 

his 
Thus -• — The boy has lost hat. 
A 

23. Exercise. 

1. Write, for examination and correction, ten sentences, 
and give all the varieties in (20), observing all the Cau- 
tions in (22). 

Let these examples be examined by the teacher, and let the errors be 
employed as models for correction. The blackboard should be used freely. 

2. Show what Cautions are violated in these exsroples, 
and write them all correctly : — 

what shall i do. 

the mouse is Eating the chease? 
i saw henry in the garden ? 
Where do the clouds hide theirselves. 
James John and david are going to boston 
the cardinal points are north east south and west. 
Come waiter and bring your crocay set with you 
The prime factors of thirty are two three and five 
addition substraction multiplication and division are 
the ground rules of rethmetic. 



20 GREENERS INTRODUCTION. 

3. Write on your slates, giving the boundaries of Mas* 

sacliusetts, , , ; the capital towns or 

cities of the Middle States, , , — ; the 

branches of the Amazon, , , ; the 

names of five Presidents of the United States, , 



4. Put the proper points after the following examples : 
The teacher has come — Are our lessons w^ell prepared — 

A mountain is a great elevation of land — What is a cape — 
O, what a blunder that is — Write these examples care- 
fully — Omit no punctuation marks — Whose slate is this— 
Why should you be so careful to write correctly now — It 
is easier to learn the right way than to correct the wrong — 
How many words has Charles misspelled — 

5. Which of the following examples are right, and 
which are WTong ? — 

i aint no coppersmith. I am no coppersmith. 

that aint no fair. That is not fair. 

'coz there aint none. Because there is none. 

I seen him when he done it. I saw him when he did it. 

i's cold. So be I. I am cold. So am I. 

A most excellent practice, to free a class from these perverted expret- 
Bions, is to require each member to collect in a little blank-book all those 
which are actually heard, and on the opposite page to write out neatly 
the proper expression. Let the examination of these books form a special 
exercise. 

Remember that the hahit of speaking and icriting correctly is now to be 
established; and the rule is, Learn to speak correctly by speaking 
eorreetly. 

LESSON XII. 

24. The subject of a sentence represents that 
of which something is said. 

Thus, the subject of the sentence, '^Age should be respected/' is age, 
because it represents that about which something is said. 



LESSON TWELFTH. 21 

25 The predicate of a sentence represents 
what is said of the subject. 

Thus, in the sentence, *" This fruit is delicious/* is delicious is the predi^ 
«a,te, because it represents what is said of fruit. 

26. Exercise. 

1. Which are the subjects, and which the predicates, ip 
the following examples ? — 

The primrose is blooming. How cold the water is! 
The child is asleep. Spain is in the southwest of Europe. 
We shall study history. Who will teach us? How long 
shall we study Geography? Return to your seat. Where 
is the next lesson ? 

2. Say something of this globe, this map, •, 

, , , and tell what the predicates are. 

3. Ask something about this watch, this belt, this port- 
folio, , , , , , and give 

the predicates. 

4. Put together the words in the following examples 
so as to form any of the kinds of sentence in (90), and 
write them, observing the Cautions in (22). Add any 
w^ords, if needed. 

The delicious fruit — my pleasant home — the olive grow- 
ing on the hill— the w^hite bleating lamb — the celery gar- 
dener in raising successful — these examples w^ritten cor- 
rectly. Look out capitals for in them writing. 

5. Correct these examples in all respects : — 

the winds are bloing — how old is arther — i knowd who 
done this — what for did you do it — my lesson is wrote — » 
James hasn't got no pencil — i will lend him this 'ere one* 

6. Put subjects in place of the following blanks :— 

is sinking. Is — here ? 

is reading. Where is ? 

— are coming. — is drumming ? 



22 Greene's introduction. 



is frisking. How long is this ? 

is beautiful. When will come ? 



How sad looks ! Study the rules. 

What cheerless nights had ! 

7. Put predicates in place of the following blanks :— ^ 

The clock . The sled . 

The ducks . The post . 

My hat •. Your belt . 

Where Jonas ? The moon . 



Who the books ? • [thou], Charles, to ma 

How he ? your lessons, boys ! 

AVhy you ? What has she ! 

How he ? He my brother. 

Let these exercises be written and examined. 



LESSON XIIL 

27. When a sentence is separated into its parts^ 
it is analyzed. 

The sentence, *^ The winter is passing," is analyzed thus : — 

Winter .... is the subject; it represents that of which something 

is affirmed. 
is passing: • • is the predicate; it represents that which is affirmed 

of the subject. 
It may be represented in its parts to the eye thus: — The winter— is 
Xtassing. 

28. Exercise. 

1. Analyze the following examples : — 

The peacock has beautiful feathers. The bridge was 
destroyed. His slate is covered. What a storm this is ! 
When shall we write? Who comes yonder? 

In this analysis no ttention should be paid to the modifying words; 
Fny, the peacock is the subject, and has heautlfal feathers is the predicatei 
it shows what vg said. 



LESSON THIRTEENTH. 23 

2. Analyze the different kinds of sentences (20) which 
;fou form about yonder sunset, that cloud, those boats, 
i^onder ■ , , , — . 

Here encourage the children to express their thoughts /ree/y and natu- 

3. In the following examples, which expressions seem 
to you best ? 

Be you agoin' to be to hum to-morrow ? Are you going 
to be at home to-morrow ? Shall you be at home to-mor- 
row ? Are you to be at home to-morrow ? 

He ha'n't fetched no slate to school. He has fetched 
no slate to school. He has brought no slate to school. 
He has not brought any slate to school. 

He's a gettin' the lesson that he hadn't ought to. He 
is getting the lesson that he had not ought to. He is 
learning the wrong lesson. He is getting the lesson he 
ought not to. He is getting the lesson he ought not to 
get. He is getting the wrong lesson. 

I ha'n't got no grammar book. I have no grammar 
book. I have no grammar. I have not got any grammar. 
I am not the owner of a grammar. I haven't any grammar. 
I do not possess a grammar book. I haven't no grammar. 

It is an exoeUent practice to draw from a class a variety of expres- 
sions, and then discuss the merits or demerits of each, always pronouncing 
upon that which is best. 

4. Mention any incorrect expressions which you ha^e 
noticed to-day. 

This exercise should be encouraged daily. A great change in the 
modes of expression will soon be observed, if the teacher will persevere 
and press earnestly the work of correction. 

5. Try to improve these expressions :— - 
Wher'bouts is our g'ography lesson? Can I borry a 

slate-pencil ? Them pens is poor. She is tryin' to do them 
sums, but she hadn't ought to study fractions for a Ipng 
Bpell to come. 



24 Greene's ixteoduction. 

CLASSES AND USES OF WOEDS. 

LESSON XIV. 

29. The name of an object (an object-word) is 
a noun. 

Here the point is to distinguish clearly between the object itself (1) 
and its name (8). Thus, this pen is an object; but the word ^jen, which V 
write on the board, is only an ohject-word, or name for the object. Se« 
Appendix. Objects of thouyht should not be introduced here. 

30. Exercise. 

1. What do you call these words? — lion, tiger, goat, 
iuUy moon, house, Solomon, Peter, , — , , 



2. Think of the objects m your room at home, and write 
the names of ten of them (see 7) on your slates. What 
do you call these names ? 

3. Think of what these words represent, and tell which 
stand for objects : — hen, clearly, house, into, swimming, rat, 
of, dog, good, old, snow, 

4. Tell the nouns in these examples : — 

Frederick is drinking water. Has Charles caught a 
trout? O, how bright the lightning is! When did the 
boy bring that basket ? Henry came from Philadelphia 
in the cars. 

5. Write five sentences, and select the nouns (see 22). 

LESSON XV. 

31 o The noun may be used as the subject 

(24). 

Thus, in the sentence, "Mary is playing," Mary is the name of the 
object of which something is said; it is a noun, and is the subject (24) of 
the sentence. 



LESSON SIXTEENTH. 25 

32. Exercise. 

1. What nouns in these examples are subjects? 

Jane walked to the city. Where will the sun rise? 
The old man remained in his carriage. The wind has 
broken the branches of the trees. The Indians live in 
huts. Rabbits burrow in the ground. 

2. Write in full the answers to five questions in your 
Geography lesson, and tell what nouns are used as sub- 
jects. 

3. Correct the following examples (see ST), and point 
out the nouns used as subjects. 

the pitcher was broke — no rivers a'n't flowing into it — 
there a'n't no fun in that play — george done all this mis- 
chief — them boys is whispering — where be them pencils — 
Be the class goin' to take all them questions — the girl 
didn^t do nothing — the boys didn't know nothing about it. 



LESSON XVL 

33. The noun^ with "is"' or '^^are/' may form 
the predicate (30). 

Thus, in the sentence, "Boston is the capital/' capital, with "is" pre^ 
ceding it forms the predicate of the sentence. The pupil should see that 
a noun without "is" or "are" cannot form a predicate; as, "Boston, the 
capital." The learner will see, hereafter, that any form of "to be" is used 
to form the predicate. 

34. Exercise. 

1. Point out the nouns used with "is" or "are" to form 
the following predicates : — 

The earth is a globe. Venus is a planet. The stars 
are suns. The squirrel is a quadruped. The pinks are 
. The shad is a . Alexander is a , 



26 Greene's introductiox. 

2. Correct these examples, and point out the nouns 
used as predicates : — 

Them's the books — that 'ere is my cap — be we good 
boys — bes you a German — am he a traitor. 

Let the pupil observe that "is" is used when the subject means but 
one, and " are'^ when it means more than one. 



LESSON XVII. 

35. A noun may be used without ^^is" or 
" are/' to limit (18) another noun ; but the 
words do not form a sentence. 

Thus, qiieen would mean any queen; but Queen Victoria means a par- 
ticular queen (see 18, 1). Here Victoria is used to limit queen, but nothing 
is affirmed. 



36. Exercise. 

1. Point out the limiting nouns in these examples : — 
The planet Venus is morning star. The ship Nautilus 

has left the harbor. Lincoln, the President, was assassi- 
nated. David, the Psalmist, was the poet-king. The river 
Nile overflows its banks. 

Caution. — When the limiting noun is itself limited, place a comma 
before the united words; thus, Peter, the hermit. 

2. Point out the subject or the predicate noun in the 
foregoing examples. 

B. Fill these blanks with limiting nouns : — 

My dog follows me. 

His brother — went into the country. 

The river empties into the Mediterranean. 

The poet wrote Paradise Lost. 



LESSON EIGHTEENTH. 27 

4. Correct these examples in all respects : — 
Napoleon the emperor of the french is a powerful 

monarch — the mississippi the father of waters drains a 
vast basin — correct expression a most important study is 
sadly neglected — Columbus the discoverer of america was 
carried home in chains. 

The teacher will readily see whether these exercises have fixed in the 
minds of the pupils the three uses of the noun, as subject, predicate, and 
limiting noun. If not, more examples should be given to them, and re- 
quired of them. 

5. Write five examples, using three nouns in each, — ■ 
one as subject, one with *'is" or *^are" to form the predi- 
cate, and one to limit the subject ; thus, My hr other James 
is a student. 



LESSON XVIII. 

37. The proMowii (for-noun) may be put for 
the nouiij m its different uses. 

Thus, instead of '^ William is at home/* we may say, He is at home 5 
instead of *'That is Julia/* we may say, That is she; instead of "The 
storm has abated/* It has abated. He, she and, it, Sive pronouns, used in- 
stead of the nouns. The particular uses of the pronouns will be considered 
hereafter. 

38. Exercise. 

1. Point out the pronouns in these examples ; tell 
whether they are used as subject or predicate : — 

He has come. Where is he ? I am he. She is study- 
ing. It is cold. They will return. 

2. Put pronouns in place of the following nouns : — 
George reads well. Where has Henry been ? It is my 

cousin. Sarah has found her crewel. The boys are at 
play. When will the stars shine ? 



28 



LESSON XIX. 

39. A word added to a noun to express a qua- 
lity of the object named is a quality word, or 
adjective. 

Thus, in the expression "sweet apple/' sweet stands for a quality of the 
apple. Here make a clear distinction, by an oral exercise, between an 
object and its qualities, and between a quality and the quality -word. 
Adjectives used merely to limit nouns should come in gradually. 

40. Exercise. 

1. AVhat qualities do you find in this orange by looking 
at it ? by feeling it ? by tasting it ? by smelling it ? In the 
same way, what qualities do you find in this s2:)onge f this 
rosef — f f f f 

2. Do these several ivords name the objects, or express 
what you find in the objects? What do you call them? 

3. K'ame any objects w^hich have the quality whiter 
smooth, juicy, fresh, round, • , , ■ . 

4. Name any of the qualities of ivater, milk, an apple, 
a horse, , -, — , , and write sen- 
tences, as in (15). 

5. What do you call these w^ords? — small; old; young; 
ripe; large; rough; ; ; ; . 

6. Point out the adjectives in these examples : — Sweet 
apples, — ripe melons, — sour grapes, — new houses, — cool 
winds, — clear skies. To w^hat kind of words are they 
added? 

LESSON XX. 

41. The adjective may be used with ^4s" oi 
" are/' to form the predicate (25) . 

Thus, we may use the adjective sour with ^'is," and gay, "The apple 
i» sour." 



LESSON TWENTY-FIRST. 29 

42. Exercise. 

1. What adjectives do you use to name the qualities of a 
hookf 2irosef a ball! f f f 

2. Form predicates with them by using them with " is." 

3. Write five nouns, and predicate four qualities of 
each (15), (23). 

4. Correct the following examples : — 

fanny writes good — the sun sat in a cloud — i seen him 
when he done it — be I rite or rong — how fur does the 
lesson go — how many sums have we got to git — sarah is 
in her wrong seat — can i go to the fire. 

5. How many expressions of your own have you im- 
proved? How many have you detected in others? 



LESSON XXL 

43. The adjective without ^^is" or ^^are" may 
be added to a noun to limit its apphcation; but 
the words do not form a sentence. 

Thus, geese names all the birds of this kind, but wild geese names only 
a part of them j wild is added to geeaej and limits its application to one 
class of geese. 

44. Exercise. 

1. Point out the adjectives used to limit the nouns in 
the following examples : — 

Rough boards — old rails — large gains — sweet peas — 
clean hands — red ink — dark cloth. 

Let the pupil see that other words besides quality-words may be added 
to nouns to limit their applications, — such as twOf three, four, this, that, 
Sind others. These, also, are called adjectives. 

2. Use two or more adjectives, — one to limit the sub- 
ject, and one with " is/^ &c., to show what is said (36, 5). 



30 Greene's introduction. 

3. Name any qualities of gold, lead, ice, - 
and affirm them, as in (14). 



LESSON XXII. 

45. A word which, of itself, affirms or isays 

something of an object, is a verb. 

Thus, '^ is " is a verb in " Ice is cold f because it affirms something 
of ice. Here ''is^^ affirms, and cold expresses ichat it affirms. 

46. A word which stands for an action (action- 
word) is a verbj when of itself it can affirm 
the action ; a participle^ when of itself it can 
only exj)ress the action, without affirming it. 

Thus, in the example ^^ The dog runs," "runs" is a verb, because it 
both stands for the action and affirms it; but in the example "The dog 
running," "running" is not a verb, but a participle, because it only stands 
for the action ,• it does not affirm it. By putting in " is," we have a word 
to affirm and another to express the action, — " The dog is running." 

This distinction must be made clear to the child by examples. H^ 
can readily see that a participle alone can never say any thing of an ob- 
ject. Let the pupil see that no other word than the verb can of itself 
form the predicate. Try a noun, a^jrono«», an adjective, or 3. participle, 

47. Exercise. 

1. Point out the verbs and the participles in the follow- 
ing examples : — 

The sun shines. The horse is running. The birds are 
flying. The dog barks. The snoAv melts. The bells are 
ringing. The winds blow. The rising sun. The sun ia 
rising. The falling leaves. The leaves fall. The stars 

. The lily . The soldier wounded in the 

hand. The soldier is wounded in the hand. 

2. Mention any actions of the robiuy the fox, the bee, 



LESSON TWENTY-FOURTH. 31 

— ^ J ^ and affirm them as in (14:), using 

one word for each. 

3. Express the actions by using the participle. Affirm 
each by using "is" or "are." 

LESSON XXIII. 
48. The verb either is the predicate, or is 
used in forming it. 

Thus, when we say, " He reads" we use the verb reads alone as the 
predicate; but when we say, "The plums are ripe/' we use the verb are 
to affirm, and ripe to show luhat is affirmed. Neither ripe alone, nor are 
alone, can form the predicate. 

49. Exercise. 

1. In the following examples, point out those in which 
(he verb alone forms the predicate, and those in which the 
verb and another word are used. 

The boy swims. 

The berries are sweet. 

The man is reading. 

The clouds rise over the hills. 

The summer is warm. 

The rising sun is bright. 

Those men are soldiers. 

That ship glides over the waves. 

That boat is a propeller. 

LESSON XXIV. 

50. The participle may be used like the ad- 
jective {4l\^ 43) . 

Thus, we may say, *' The rising sun gilds the mountain-top," orj ** The 
Bun is rising in the east." 



32 Greene's introduction- 

51. Exercise. 

1. In the following sentences, point out the participles 
used to limit, and those used in the predicate : — 

The sun is rising. 

The sparkling stream is pouring over the precipice. 

The beautiful boat is sailing down the stream. 

The pouring rain falls in torrents. 

The roaring lion frightens the hunters. 

The moving mass is stretching over the ground. 

2. In these examples, tell whether the predicate is a 
verb alone, a verb and a participle, a verb and an adjec- 
tive, or a verb and a noun : — 

The shower is coming. 
O, how it rains ! 
The earth is w^et. 

The dew is sparkling on the grass. 
The hyena is an offensive animal. 
The gold is melting. 
8. Put upon the blackboard any errors which you have 
beard to-day. 

LESSON XXV. 
52. A word used to limit the meaning of a 
'V67'&5 adjective^ participle^ or adverh^ is an adverb. 

Thus, in "The horse walks slowli/ ;" "a very ripe peach ;'^ "the storm 
approaching gradualli/ ;" "rising too quickly j" slowly, very, gradually, 
and too quickly are adverbs. 

Let this only use of the adverb be fully illustrated by drill exercise 
See Suggestions, (pp. 5, 6) ; also, Appendix 

53, Exercise. 

1. Point out the adverbs in these examples : — 
Charles writes carefully. 
The weather is very cold. 



LESSON TWENTY-SIXTH. 33 

The dog barks most furiously. 
Henry entered too abruptly. 
The man is sitting there. 
The orator spoke eloquently. 
The word is too difScult. 

2. Analyze the foregoing examples, and show how thg 
predicates are limited. 

3. Tell the verbs, adjectives, nouns, pronouns, and ad- 
verbs in these examples : — 

John is at the door. 

The daylight is gone. 

The old tree is badly broken. 

He is riding in a carriage. 

How slowly the snail crawls ! 

The melons are ripe. 

Where is my knife ? 



LESSON XXVI. 

54. A word used to sliov^ a relation (relation- 
word) is a preposition. 

Thus, in the expression, "The book is on the table," on is a prepo- 
Bition. Illustrate this. See Appendix, '* Method for Lesson XIV.'* 

55, Exercise. 

1. Insert the proper prepositions in the following 
blanks, and tell what each preposition shows the rela- 
tion of: — 

Edgar walked the garden. 

The woodpecker ran the trunk of the tree. 

I rode Providence Boston — the 

cars. 

Emma practised diligence two hours. 

3 



34 



The dews the morning glitter the ra^< 

the sun. 



He spoke — different subjects. 

2. Write sentences containing the prepositions down, 
among, upon, between, over, against, by, under, ,. 



3. Correct the following examples in all respects : — 
there's five agoin' already — aint it fun — ther aint no- 
thin' at all — i left my pen to hum — them is the fellers — • 
be you goin jist now — us fellers done all the work — sich 
doin's mustn't be in these grounds — i disremember them 
things you told me — have you got your seeds ^e have got 
ourn. 

LESSON XXVII. 

56. A Tvord used to connect (connecting-word) 
is a conjuiietioii. 

Illustrate this by taking two objects in the hand, and show that we 
tonnect the names in speaking when we connect the things in thinking 
of them. Thus, this ^:)e?i and ^;e?ici7. 

57. A word used to express feeling or emotion 
(emotion-word) is an iiiterjeetion. 

Thus, in ''Alas! he is gone," alas is an interjection. 

68. Exercise, 

1. Point out the conjunctions in these examples, and 
tell what they connect : — 

The teacher and the scholars are present. 

Washington always decided wisely and justly. 

The pen or the ink is poor. 

Gertrude has neither father nor mother. 

I have not a slate, but a book. 

Arnold is not ano^ry, but sad. 



LESSON TWENTY-SEVENTH. 35 

2. Point out the interjections in the following exam- 
ples : — 

What ! is it possible ? 

Alas ! alas I my axe is lost. 

Adieu ! my native land, adieu ! 

Ah me ! I fear the worst. 

Hail! hail to thee, great chief! 

O thoughts ineffable ! O visions blest ! 

3. Write sentences containing the conjunctions and 
interjections, — but, and, if, than, because; ah, hurra, oh, 
alas. 

4. Write sentences containing — 
(1.) A noun, a verb, an adverb. 
(2.) A noun, a verb, a participle. 

(3.) A noun, a verb, and two adjectives connected by a 
conjunction. 

(4.) An adjective used in the predicate. 

(5.) A preposition and a participle. 

(6.) One noun joined to another to limit it. 

(7.) An adjective used to limit, and a noun in the pre- 
di/^.ate. 

(8.) A noun to limit, and an adjective in the predicate. 

Xt%i this kind of exercise be continued^ if needed. 



36 GBEENE^S IKTEODUCTION. 



SUBDIVISIONS, PROPERTIES, AND CHANGES 
OF WORDS. 

LESSON XXVIIL 

59. A noun which applies to an individual 
object is a proper noun. 

60. A noun which may apply to each indi- 
vidual of a class of objects is a coinnion noun. 

In these two paragraphs, the point is to show that an object may have 
a name as one of a class, or, in case of important objects, a name of its 
own. Thus, boy is a name applying to any boy, but Herbert denotes some 
particular boy. 

61. Exercise. 

1. Fill these blanks, the first with a common noun, 
the second with a proper : — 

A was fought in . 

What flows into the ? 

A sailed across the — . 

2. Fill these blanks, and tell what kind of nouns you 
insert : — 

is w^alking with his . 

The commanded the to march to . 

is situated on an . 

3. Write five sentences, each containing a proper noun. 

4. Correct these examples : — 

give me mj book and i will give you yourn — hisn aint 
right — mighty little have I got — shet the door and set 
down — what a blunder that is — have you been chawing 
gum — it's good ef you eat it unbeknown. 



LESSON THIRTIETHc 37 



LESSON XXIX. 

62. A noun or a pronoun usually changes its 
form when it represents more than one object. 

63. When a noun or a pronoun represents a 
siiifjle object^ it is of the siiigiilar niiiMbei*. 

64. When a noun or a pronoun represents 
more than one object^ it is of the plural 
II limber. 

Thus, in '^ He gave me an apple,'* he, me, and apple are of the singular 
number; but in " They gave us some apples," they, us, and apples are of 
the plural number. Illustrate this distinction by means of objects, as in 
Appendix. 

65. Exercise. 

1. Write the plural of the following nouns : — 
Paper, boy, girl, rose, house, thrush, marsh, box, bush, 

table, church, piano, knife, wife, bath, thief, fife, five, 
sheaf, fly, cry, glory, ally. 

2. Write three sentences containing each a plural noun, 
and three containing each a singular noun. 



LESSON XXX. 

66. In speaking, there are three parties^ called 
persionis, — the speaker, the liearei% and the 
objeet spoken of. 

Thus, when I say to you, *^ Herbert is writing," /denotes the speaker, 
you the hearer^ and Herhert the object spoken of. 

67. The first person represents the speaker. 

68. The second person represents the hearer. 



38 GREENERS INTRODUCTION. 

69. The tliird pers»OM represents the object 
spoken of. 

Thus, in the example above, / is of the first person, you of the second, 
and Herbert of the third, — the only party really named. 

An object must he spoken of (10) to be represented at ail in the sen- 
tence. Hence the first and the second person would never appear in the 
sentence unless they were in some way s^joZ^ew of. In the first person, the 
object spoken o/ is the speaker; in the second, the hearer; in the third, a 
third party, differing from both. 



70. Exercise. 

1. Is the speaker or the hearer represented in the fol- 
lowing examples? Is there any thing in them to show 
who the speaker or the hearer is ? What are the objects 
spoken off Must there be a speaker for each ? 

James is coming. Time is money. Honesty is the best 
policy. The truth will triumph. 

2. Is the speaker or the hearer represented in the fol- 
lowing examples ? What represents the objects sj^ohen off 
Tell what two parties (66) are represented in each. 
What party is not represented ? 

I am writing. Are you reading ? We shall be present. 
I will certainly go. Thou art beside thyself. 

3. Among the following examples, tell those in which 
the speaker or the hearer is represented. Are there any 
in which the object spoken of is not represented? Are 
there any in which the speaker or the hearer is not repre- 
sented ? Are there any in which more than one object is 
Bpoken of? 

The kite is flying. You may see it. Where is Wil- 
liam ? Have you seen the eclipse ? I have bought you a 
book. Jane told you to give me her pen. 



LESSON THIRTY-FIRST. 



39 



LESSON XXXI. 

71. To represent the three persons^ we employ 
personal prononiiis. 

By examples, the teacher will readily show that the tTiird 2^erson may 
firrt be represented by name; then, to avoid repetition, by the pronouns 
he, she, or it; — that the first and the second person are invariably repre- 
sented by pronouns, to avoid the amhignity which would ensue from the 
use of the noun. Thus, if George, intending to speak of himself, should 
say, " George is playing croquet," the hearer would think he meant some 
other George. So of the second person. 





72. Exercise. 




1. Learn the foil 


owing list of personal 

SIMPI.E. 


pronouns :— 




Singular, 


Plural. 


First Person . . . 


I. 


We. 


Siecoud Person . . 


Tliou. 


Ye or you. 


Third Person . . . 


He, she, or it, 
COMPOFXI>. 


They. 




Singular, 


Plural. 


First Person . . . 


Myself. 


Ojarselves. 


Second Person . . 


Tliyself, yourself. 


Yourselves. 


Third Person . . . 


Himself, herself, 
itself. 


Themselves. 



2. How should the object spoken of be represented in 
the following examples ? — 

Stephen bought a top, carried the top homC; and played 
with the top. Sarah invited Ellen to a picnic, and re- 
quested Ellen to invite Ellen's cousin. Henry found ^ 
question which Henry could not answer. 

Should it be represented by the pronoun in every in- 
stance ? 



40 Greene's introduction. 

3. IIoAV should William speak of himself in these ex- 
amples ? — 

Give William (meaning himself) a slate. William 
attends the grammar-school. William is studying arith- 
metic. 

Why should a pronoun be used in every instance? 
Which of the three parties (66) does William represent ? 
Is he spoken of? By whom? 

4. How should Alice be represented as the one spoken 
to in these examples ?— 

Alice may bring Alice's pen and ink, and Alice may 
write a letter to Alice's sister. 

5. Fill the blanks in the following examples with the 
proper pronouns, and tell why the same Walter is repre- 
sented by different pronouns : — 

" Come," says Walter, '^ am ready for a ride." 

Walter, when are coming home? 

Walter is very ingenious ; has made a little 

printing-press. 

Draw from the pupil the concliasion that the pronoun itself must be 
changed when the personal relation of the same individual changes. 

5. Give pronouns to represent these nouns : — 
(1.) As object spoken of: — house, houses; tree, trees 
boy, boys ; lady, ladies ; duck, ducks ; church, churches 
bear, bears ; man, men ; — , ; , 



Why does the pronoun change its form to represent the 
words between the semicolons ? In what respect does it 
agree with the nouns ? 

(2.) As party speahingy or spoken to : — Alfred, Alfred 
and Silas; Jonas, Jonas and Emory; Isaac, Isaac, Na- 
than, and David ; , , , . 

Let the pupil draw the conclusion, from these changes, as to the agree- 
ment of the pronoun with the noun. 



LESSON THIRTY-SECOND. 41 

6. In the following examples, let the subject in each be- 
come first, second, or third person, singular or plural 
number, and mark the changes in the verb : — 

Philip is flying a kite. Do you see the old farm-house? 
I am very fond of mignonette. Carroll is an excellent 
carpenter ; he is constantly employed. Hubert is gather- 
ing pond-lilies ; how fragrant they are ! 

Let the pupil observe that these changes follow the changes ia^^erson 
and number of the subject. 

LESSON XXXII. 

73. A different pronoun must be used when 
the object spoken of is male, female, or nei- 
tlier male nor female. 

Thus, for ^' Henry rides," we have, Tie rides; for "Mary sings,'* she 
sings ; for " Steel is hard/* it is hard. 

74. The distinction of nouns or pronouns in 
regard to sex is called gender. 

75. The maseialiiie gender denotes a male, 

76. The femiifiiiae gender denotes ^female. 

77. The nenter gender denotes an object 
neither male nor female. 



78. Exercise. 

1. In the following examples point out the nouns and 
the pronouns, and tell the person, the number, and the 
gender of each : — 

Pigeons fly in such numerous flocks that they often 
break down the branches of the trees when they alight. 

Virginia sketches beautifully ; she studies nature. 

John is so lame that he is obliged to ride to school. 



42 gkeexe'kS i^^tkoductiox. 

That engraving is very fine ; I intend to buy it. 
Have you concluded to purchase that house? 
"\Ye must visit Niagara Falls. 

2. Write sentences containing the following pronouns : — • 
I, you, he, she, it, we, they, and ye. 

3. Represent the following nouns by appropriate pro- 
nouns : — Arnold, Cornelia, grandfather, hens, chicken, 
chisel, parents. 

Let the pupil observe the ar/reement of the pronoun with its noun in 
perso7i, number, and gender^ 



LESSON XXXIII. 

79. RifiTerent forms of the same pronoun are 
used to represent the noun in its several re- 
lations to other words. 

Thus, put a pronoun for Hennj in these examples, — '' Henry is read- 
ing;'' ^^I saw Henry;" ^^ Henry's cap is torn," — and you have, ''He is 
reading;" "1 saw liiBii;" "Mis cap is torn/' 

80. A noun or a pronoun may have one of three 
different relations, called case. 

81. The nomiiaative case is used as the 
subject, and answers the question who? or wliat? 

82. The possessive case is used before an- 
other noun to limit it by denoting possession. 

83. The otojective case is used after a verb 
or a prei>osition, and answers the question 'wliom ? 
or what? 

Thus, in the example, "Jane saw Henry's kite," Jane is in the nomi- 
native case, it answers the question, Who saw? kite is in the objective 
ease, it shows what she saw ; Henry's is in the possessive case, it shows 
xohoae kite. 



LESSON THIRTY-FOUKTH. 43 

84. Exercise. 

1. Give the case of the following nouns: — 
Harriet is in her garden. 

Jungles abound in Hindostan. 

Merton's dog has bitten a child. 

I bought the pencils at Clark's. 

I have read Bancroft's History of the United States. 

2. Put pronouns in place of the following nouns in 
Italics, and thus determine the case by the form of the 
pronoun : — 

Henry guided Arthur. Murphy's dog is dead. Gifford 
bought a cow. The hen laid ten eggs. 

LESSON XXXIV. 

85. A verb which takes an objective case im- 
mediately after it is a transitive verb. 

Thus, in " I found in the orchard," we cannot use he, she, or his, 

but must use him, her, or it, to fill the blank. These are in the objective 
case; and so would be any word that did not change its form. 

86. A verb which does not take an objective 
immediately after it is an iiatransitive verb. 

Thus, in the examples, ''The stars set ;" " The trees bend /' 

no word is needed to complete the meaning. 

87. Exercise. 

1. Point out the transitive and the intransitive verbs 
in the following examples : — 
The owl sits upon the tree. 
Gertrude has finished her picture. 
The pears dropped from the tree. 
The sun shines upon the water. 



44 greexe's introduction. 

The fire has scorched the grass. 
The robin is feeding her young. 



LESSON XXXV. 

88. Every transitive verb requires two parties, 
— the actor^ and the receiver of the action. 

Thus, in ^^ John struck Yrilliam," John is the actor, and William the 
receiver of the action. 

89. When the name of .^e actor is the subject 
of the sentence, the verb is in the active voice. 

Thus, struck, above, is in the active voice, because the actor is 
represented as subject. 

90. When the name of the receiver is the 
subject, the verb is in the passive voice. 

Thus, in ^^ William vjgs struck by John," was struck is in the passive 
voice, because the receiver of the action is represented as subject. 

91. Exercise. 

1. Point out the verbs in the active and in the passive 
voice in these examples : — 

The governor pardoned the prisoner. 
The ship was wrecked upon the rocks. 
The fish was caught with a hook. 
The dog pursued the fox. 
The branches were broken by the wind. 

2. Change the sentences in these examples by putting 
the passive for the active voice. 

The committee visited the school. 

The policeman caught the robber. 

The sun melted the snow. 

The wind broke the branches of the trees. 

The boy carried berries to market. 



LESSON THIETY-SIXTH. 45 

LESSON XXXVI. 

92. An event may be real, and actually 
happen^ or it maybe tliowglit of and be spoken 

of as if it had happened. 

Thus, if I say, "The boy is playing," or, "Is the boy playing?" you 
understand me to say something or ask for something that is real or 
actual; but if I say, "The boy can play," or, "Can the boy play?" 
it does not mean that the boy is actually playing, — (he may be asleep) : 
I merely think of his playing. 

93. When a verb asserts or inquires for an 
action as actually taking place^ it is in the in- 
dicative mode. 

Thus, " The wind is bloioing/' asserts a thing that really is taking 
place. 

94. When a verb asserts or inquires for an 
action which merely may, can^ or must take 
place, it is in the potential mode. 

Thus, when I say, "/ tnay go/' it does not mean that I really am 
going. 

95. When a verb expresses a condition for 
another event and implies doubt^ it is in the 
sitttojnnctive mode. 

Thus, in "Jane will come, if it do not rain," the coming of Jan& 
depends upon whether or not it will rain at the time. 

96. When a verb asserts a command or an 
entreaty, it is in the imperative mode. 

Thus, when I say, " Bring me the chair," I command something. 

97. A verb with to placed before it, expressing 
action but not asserting it, is called tlie infini- 
tive. 

Thus, to ready to have written, to walk, are infinitives. 



46 GREECE'S INTRODUCTION. 

98. Exercise. 

1 Fill these blanks with verbs, and tell the mode ot 
each : — 

The rain falling. 

The wind from the east. 

Arthur Geography. 

The dog barking at the cat. 

We will go to Niagara if we home. 

2. Tell the mode of the following verbs : — 

The boy may catch a fish. 

The tree is broken by the wind. 

Come, Edmund, play with me. 

I will go if you will explain my lesson. 

The leaves begin to fall. 



LESSON XXXVII. 

99. An action is said to be^ — 
Progressive, v^dien it is represented as going 

vn. 

Thus, ^^ The boys are 2y^ci^i^fg/' means that they are actually plajing, 
but have not finished yet. 

Completed or perfeet, when it is represented 

as fiiiisJied. 

Thus, "The boys liave played,^^ means that they are not now actnally 
playing, but have finished their play. 

IndefiiSLite, when it merely supposes a going 
on and a finishing^ but does not distinctly state it. 

Thus, " The boys played," means that they had a play, which must 
have hegun, gone on, and ended, 

100. When the verb by its form represents 



LESSON THIRTY-SEVENTH. 47 

the action as taking place at the time of speaking ^ 
it is in the present tense. 

Thus, ^' The boys are playing" (prog.). ^' The boys have played" (com- 
pleted). " ThQ hoys play" (indef.). 

101. When the verb by some change of form 
places the action before the time of speaking, it is 

in the pmst tense. 

Thus, *'* The boys were playing*' (prog.). *^Thc boys had played** (com- 
pleted). " The boys played" (indef.) 

102. When the verb by some change of form 
places the action after the time of speaking^ it is 
in the fntui^e tense. 

Thus, '^ The boys will he playing" (prog.). " The boys will have played'* 
(perfect). " The boys will play (indef.)." 

103. In forming the tenses which denote pro- 
gressive action^ the verb be {is^ am^ are^ was^ vnll 
he^ &c.) unites with the participle ending in 
ing, which represents an unfinished act. 

Thus, ^^I am sitting;" '^ He was walking ;" ^' They are running.** 

104. In forming the tenses denoting com- 
pleted action^ the verb Iiave {have^ had^ will 
have) unites with the partieiple (usually end- 
ing in ed) which stands for a finished act. 

Thus, ^' They have eaten;" " They will have written.** 

105. When the past indef, (S9) and the parti- 
ciple for a finished act are formed by adding ed 
to the present tense^ the verb is regnlar. 

Thus, Love gives us, by dropping the final e, lov ; then, by adding ed^ 
lov-ed, and the participle is the same. 



48 GREENERS INTRODUCTION. 

106. When the past tense and the participle 
for a finished act are not formed by adding ed to 
the present^ the verb is irregular. 

Thus, we have — present, bring ; pa^t indef, brought; participle for 
finished act, brought. 



107. Exercise. 

1. Give the progressive (98) state or form of, — blow, 
drive, reign, fly, speak, , , , , , . 

2. Give the per Jed, ox form for completed action, to the 
same verbs. 

3. Give the common or form for indefinite action, to 
the same. 

Give each in the present, the past, the future. 

4. Write upon the slate the present, past, and future 
of the verbs dive, rain, climb, hop, , , , — — . 

5. Give the present tense, the past tense, and the perfect 
tente to the following: thus, — 

Present Tense. Past Tense. Perfect Tense^ 

Write, Wrote, Have written, 



Play, 

Sing, 

Invite, 

Love, 

Read, 

Enjoy, 

6. Determine the past tense and past participle of the 
folloAving verbs, and tell which are regular and which are 
irregular : — sell, wear, is producing, is said, fail, has given, 
play, prepare. 



L.E^K)N TPIIETY-EIGHTH. 49 



LESSON XXXVIII. 

108. In speaking of two or more objects^ actions^ 
or conditions^ we often compare them by means 
of an adjective or an adverb. 

Thus, when I say, '^ This pencil is longer than that/* it shows that I 
have compared two pencils; when I say, '^The eagle y?tes swifter than the 
dove," I compare two actions. 

109. The adjective or the adverb^ by its form^ 
or by some change of form^ expresses the degree 
of comparison. 

110. There are three degrees of comparison : — 
(1.) The positive degree, used when there 

is no comparison^ or when two objects possess 
equal degrees. 

Thus, when I say, "This tree is tall; that tree is tall,^^ I do not 
compare them; but when I say, "This tree is as tall as that," I compare 
them, and show that they have equal degrees of height. 

(2.) The comparative degree, used when 

two objects, actions, or conditions possessing 
unequal degrees are compared. _ 

Thus, "This key is ^eayte?* than that;" "The weather is warmer ia 
autumn than in spring." 

(3.) The superlative degree, used when 
one object, action, or condition is compared with 
two or more of the same kind. 

Thus, " The sun is the brightest of all the heavenly bodies." 
Let the attention of the pupil be directed to the manner of forming 
these degrees, by adding er, eatj and the use of morCf most, less, least. 

4 



60 Greene's intkoduction. 

HI. Exercise. 

1. Give the degree of each of the followmg adjectives :-\ 
Sweet, older, merry, brightest, more unhappy, least diffi- 
cult, peaceful, upright. 

2. Compare these adverbs : — swift, badly, ill, well, finely. 

3. Fill the following blanks with adjectives, and tell the 
degree of each : — 

Honesty is the ■ policy. 

Be — of your health. 

Be not in w^ell-doing. 

Gerald is the of my sons. 

Augusta is than Constance. 

The toys are bought here. 

4. Write the comparatives and superlatives for the fol- 
lowing adjectives and adverbs : — 

Wise, warm, lovely, slowly, noble, heavily, beautiful, 
careless, abruptly, eloquently. 

5. Collect all the incorrect expressions which you hear 
during this week, and compare them with those in (117). 



LESSON XXXIX. 

112. The different classes of words are called 
Parts of Speecli. 

113. To parse a word is to tell what part of 
speech it is, and all that belongs to it. 

114. To parse a noun or a pronoun is to 
tell,^ 

1. The part of speech. 

2. What kind. 

3. What person. 

4. What number. 



LESSON THIRTY-NINTH. 61 

5. What gender. 

6. What case. 

115. To parse a verb^ tell, — 

1. What part of speech. 

2. What form, Eegular or Irregular. 

8. What kind, Transitive or Intransitive. 

4. What voice. 

5. What mode. 

6. What tense. 

7. What person. 

8. What number. 

116. To parse an adjective or an adverb, 

tell, — 

1. What part of speech. 

2. What degree of comparison, 

3. What it belongs to or limits. 

To parse a preposition^ conj unction, or 
Interjection, tell, — 

1. What part of speech. 

2. What it connects, or how it is used. 

117. General Exercise. 

Analyse the following sentences, and parse the words :— • 

Dreams have their variety. 

You will be sure of a reward. 

The sisters charm with their lovely songs. 

A blunder often makes a precedent. 

Hope is the blossom of happiness. 

The blossoms are falling from the trees. 

The wind sighs plaintively around her grave. 

The raging tempest swept away every thing in its pai^ 

Heaven opened wide her golden gates. 



62 Greene's introbuction. 

The wisest method has been pursued. 

The children were studying their lesson in Arithmetic, 

The Mexicans were defeated at Buena Vista. 

The buds are swelling rapidly. 

The vessel had not arrived yesterday. 

Mabel is the younger of the two children. 

The following are some of the actual expressions collected from alarga 
number of schools. They should be carefully corrected. 

2. Correct the following expressions : — 

'Tain't no good. I hain't got no writin' pen. Did any 
one lost a pencil ? I've got some on t'other side of me 
slate. You said 'twas yourn. Mine was writ better'n hisn, 
only he writ more nor I did. Brown taked me net off. 
Plase may I get me slate pencil off of Quinn ? You he's 
telling on him. Please may I bring my slate to my sister ? 
He done it, too, marm. He is to home. I w^asn't hittin' 
*em. Didn't go no place. He he's whispering. They are 
thirty-seven States. I don't want none. I can't git it no 
way. I ain't got no book. Be them two right ? I can't 
see them numbers. I hurted me. I hain't going to stay 
too. My book is to home. He took and threw him down. 
Is them right? I've got a book. Be you coming to school ? 
I jist saw him as him and me w^as coming up. I am most 
freezed. He went and rubbed it out. I ain't whispered 
neither. She's went home. I am goin' to get a hunk of 
ice. I cotched the ball. That pen ain't hern. You hadn't 
neither. He hit me with a great big large stone. May I 
set with Ida ? The lesson ain't in it. That boy what sat 
on that seat ran out. A veil what you wear on your head. 
I found this 'ere on the winder. Here she are ! My book 
is all tored up. The lesson is teared out. He he's all the 
time doin' it. I ain't doing nothin. I seen them. He ia 
goin' to have me tooken up. Mother wanted to brung it 
home. All the hats ain't tooken. She didn't say nothin'. 



LESSON THIRTY-NINTH. 53 

Hullo, teacher ! Florie and me went out and drove hoop. 
Hadn't there ought to be a point? The prime factors of 
204 ain't here. There ain't none struck out. Are them 
close together ? Ain't it right to multiply by them two ? 
Be you a goin' ? I ain't going to get any. Where be I 
goin' to set? I done you good. Me and Julia went there. 
Them books is mine. We'll catch 'em. James will go if 
he will be let. I readed it. My mother sends me to school 
so as not to have no bother of me to home. Run 'long, 
Johnnie. I can larn you more to home than ye'll ever 
get here. She wouldn't give me none. He goes earlier 
than me. I seen him going up the avenue. That boy 
what sets in that chair there dropped his book. She he's 
sick. I've larned it to her. They couldn't make no sense 
out of it at all. I ain't comin'. I won't whisper no more. 
She is prettier wayed than her sister. He never had no 
trouble before. Charlie licked another feller in the yard 
at recess. Somebody has took my book. It done me a 
great deal of good. She give me it. I liked her lots. 
They was goin' to git up. It's hern. She hadn't ought to 
say so. He ain't sick neither, for I seen him settin' on the 
curbstones. O, they thought it was dreadful cute. 'Tain't 
no good if it don't lock down. I like to stuck it clean 
through my hand. Is it the one I got on? I can't do it 
nohow. Sarah she said she wasn't comin' this afternoon. 
Be we a goin' home at half-past three? It's kind o' nice. 
She jawed her mother. Where was we? Be you going? 
I can't make it look good. I had ought to have some 
credit for that. I have wrote two lines. I see a box on 
her desk, yesterday. I don't understand the way they 
done it. Will I have to lose my seat ? I heard an incor- 
rect sentence and then I went and forgot it. They didn't 
have no provisions. My pen ain't good. How much be 
they (pens) ? There is a good many that buys it. We 
done them over four or five times. 



PART II. 
INTERMEDIATE COURSE. 

[This course is intended to be intermediate between the elementary 
and the full course in the English Grammar.] 



LESSON XL. 

118. Englisli G^raiuinar treats of the prin- 
ciples of the English language. 

119. Grammar is divided into four parts : — 
Ortliography, Etymology, Syntax, and 
Prosocly. 

120. Ortliograpliy treats of elementary 
sounds, the letters which represent them, and 
the combination of letters into syllables and 
words. 

Orttioepy treats of the proper pronunciation of words. 

121. Etymology treats of the classification, 
derivation, and various modifications of words. 

122. Syntax treats of the structure of sen- 
tences. 

123. Prosody treats of the laws of versifica- 
tion. 



Of what does English Grammar treat? How is Grammar divided? 
Of what does Orthography treat? Of what does Etymology treat? Of 
^hat does Syntax treat ? Of what does Prosody treat? 
54 



LESSON FORTY-FIRST. 55 



OETHOGEAPHT. 



LESSON XLI. 

ELEMENTARY SOUNDS. 

124. Ortliograpliy treats of elementary 
sounds^, the letters which represent them, and 
the combination of letters into syllables and 
words. 

ELEMENTARY SOUNDS. 

125. An elementary sound is the simplest 
sound in the language 

Ex.— The sounds of a, e, b, h, s, m, p. 

These sounds, about forty in number, can be appreciated only when 
represented to the ear. Let the learner be taught to utter them distinctly, 
and he will then understand the following classification ; 

126. These sounds are divided into three 
classes : — vocals, subvoeals, and aspirates. 

127. The vocals consist of pure tone only. 
Ex. — a, 6, if 0, u. 

128. The sial> vocals consist of tone united 
V ith breath. 

Ex. — 6, dj I, m, n, r. 

What is an elementary sound? How many elementary sounds are 
the^e ? Into what classes are the elementary sounds divided ? What are 
the vocals ? What are the subvocals ? 



56 greexe's introduction. 

129 The asspirateis consist of pure breati 
only. 

Ex.— p, t, k,f. 

130. Exercise. 

1. Utter first the word, and then the element, printed 
in Italics. 

Vocals. — N-a-me, f-a-r, b-a-11, a-t; m-e, m-e-t ; f-i-ne, 
p-i-n ; s-o-ld, m-o-ve, n-o-t ; m-tt-te, p-u-W, c-t^-p ; f-oi^-nd. 

ISubTOcalis. — B-at, d-og, g-o, j-oj, l-ife, m-an, n-o, so-ng, 
ba-r, th-ose, i;-oice, u'-ise, y-es, ^-one, a-2:ure. 

Aspirates. — J'-aith, A-at, ar-Z;, ^-ine, s-un, ^ake, ^A-ink, 
«A-one, cA-urch, ivh-en. 

2. In the following examptes, point out — 
Five Vocals. — Lake, life, pet, sound, grove. 

Six Subvocals, — Goat, boy, wife, star, jug, note. 
Five Aspirates. — Hound, kite, thing, sing, where. 



LESSON XLIL 

LETTERS. 

181. A letter is a character used to represent 
an elementary sound. 

132, The English alphabet contains twenty^ 
BIX letters :— A a, B b, C c, D d, E e, F f, G g. 
II h, I i, J j, K k, L 1, M m, N n, 9, P p, Q q, 
R r, S s, T t, U u, V V, W w, X x, Y y, Z z. 

What are the aspirates? What is a letter? How many letters are 
there in the English alphabet ? Name them. 



LESSON FORTY-SECOXD. 51 

133. Those letters which represent vocals are 
called vowels. They are a, e^ i^ o^ u^ and some< 
limes w and y. 

134. Those letters which represent subvocab 
and aspirates are called con^onaiits. 

.135. The consonants are — 
Sabvoeals — 6, d^ g^ j\ l^ m, n^ i% v^ z. 
Aispirates — f^ h^ k^ c^ q^ v^ t^ s. 

X is a subvocal when it is equivalent to gs, as in exist; 
and an aspirate when it is equivalent to hs, as in wax, 

W and Y are consonants (subvocals) when they precede 
a vowel in the same syllable. 

Ex. — Wine, wet, yes, yew. 

In all other cases they are vowels. 

Ex. — Few, lovely, how, boy, 

136. Equivalents are those letters or com- 
binations of letters which represent the same 
«ound. 

Ex. — N-a-me, g-ay, th-ey, y-am, g-au-ge. 

137. A variable letter is one which repre- 
sents several different sounds. 

Ex. — F-a-me, f-a-r, f-a-t, h-a-11, wh-a-t, li-a-r. 

138. A silent letter is one which has nc 
wund. 

Ex. — Pe-a-rl, tho-ugh. 



"What are vowels ? Name them. What are consonants ? Name them. 
What are equivalents ? Give examples. What is a variable letter? G-ive 
examples. What is a silent lottcB? Give examples. 



58 G€IEEXE S INTKODUCTION. 



139. Exercise. 

1. Tell which letters are vowels, and which are conso 
tiants, in the following words : — 

Xame, war, come, peace, tree, fish, good, live, old, sad, 
young, wine, said, yet, win, new, gay, day. 

2. Tell which of the following letters represent vocals, 
which subvocals, and which aspirates : — 

t, r, V, a, f, g, m, c, d, k, p, o, w, s, h, y, x, 1, e, j. 

3. Give the sounds of a in name, w^ar, bat, cabbage, 
fare, all, what; of e in mete, met, they, there, her; of i 
in pine, pin, sir ; of u in mute, put, but, fur ; of c in mice, 
sacrifice, cat; of/ in fare, of; of ^ in give, go, gem, 
George ; of r in read, rude, bar, far ; of s in sit, sin, was, 
does, measure, pleasure ; of ^ in wax, example. 



LESSON XLIIL 

combi:n"Ations of letters. 

14'0. Two or more voivels may unite. 
Ex. — S-oi^-nd, h-uoy. 

141. Two or more consonants may unite. 
Ex. — Bl-e-iid, thr-ee, 

142. A consonant may unite with a vowel. 
Ex. — An, no, did, call. 

143. A diplttliong is the union of two vowels 
in one syllable. 

Ex. — Ou in sound, oi in voice. 

In what three ways may letters be united? What is a diphthong ? 



LESSON FORTY-THIRD. 59 

144. A proper diphthong is one in which 
both vowels are sounded. 

Ex. — Ou in thou. 

145. An improper diphthong is one in which 
one of the vowels is silent. 

Ex. — A in heat 

146. A triphtfeong is the union of three 
vowels in one syllable. 

Ex. — Eau in beauty. 

147. A proper triphthong is one in which the 
three vowels are sounded. 

Ex. — TJoy in buoy. 

148. An improper triphthong is one in 
which one or two of the vowels are silent. 

Ex. — The ea in beauty^ the ie in adieu. 



149. Exercise. 

4. Point out the combinations in the following words :— 
Tell whether the diphthongs and triphthongs are proper 
or improper : — 

Fear, pear, voice, sound, pierce, receive, Europe, people^ 
view, adieu, beauty, though, shine, when, whip, chip, 
phrase, chaise, architect, motion, partial, option, session. 



What is a proper diphthong? What is an improper diphthong? 
What is a triphthong ? What is a proper triphthong ? What is an im- 
proper triphthong ? 



60 Greene's introduction, 

LESSON XLIV. 

SYLLABLES AND "WORDS. 

150. A syllable is a letter or a combination 
of letters representing a sound uttered with one 
impulse of the voice. 

Ex. — Mat, mat-ter, ona-te-ri-al. 

151. The essential part of a syllable is a 
vowel. 

By vowel is here meant a vowel-sound, wb ether represented by a single 
vowel, a diphthong, or a triphthong. 

152. A syllable may consist — 

1. Of a vowel ; as, a-cre, ei-iher, 

2. Of a vowel with one or more consonants pre- 
fixed ; as, 6a-sis, bri-ev, three, phthi-^is, 

3. Of a vowel with one or more consonants afilxed ; 

as, an, elf, inter-es^^, earths, 

4. Of a vowel with one or more consonants both pre- 
fixed and affixed ; as, n-oo-n, tr-w-th, thr-u-sts. 

153. A word consists of one syllable alone^ or 
of two or more syllables united. 

Ex. — Faith, faith-ful. 

154. A word of one syllable is called a mono- 
liyllable. 

Ex. — Pen, boy, care. 

What is a syllable? What is the essential part of a syllable? Of 
what may a syllable consist? What is a word? What is a monosylla- 
ble? 



LESSON FORTY-FOURTH. 61 

155. A word of two syllables is called a dis* 
isyllable. 

Ex. — Na-ture, care-fuL 

156. A word of three syllables is called a tri- 
syllable. 

Ex, — Nat'U-raly care-ful-ness. 

157. A word of four or more syllables is called 
a polysyllable. 

Ex. — Un-7iat'U-raly coii'Sci-en-tious-ness, 

158. A word in no way derived from another 
is a primitive word. 

Ex. — Form, watch, 

159. A word formed by joining to a primitive 
some letter or syllable to modify its meanings is a 
derivative word. 

Ex. — Re-form, woiich-fnL 

160. A word formed by miiting two or more 
simple words is called a eompouiid word. 

Ex. — Watchman, father-in-law, 

161. Exercise, 

1. Divide the following words into syllables : — 
Detection, inability, commotion, though, relate, unpre- 
meditated, thoughtful. 

2. Tell which of the following words are primitive, 
which derivative, and which compound : — 



What is a dissyllable? What is a word of three syllables called? 
What is a polysyllable? What is a primitive word? What is a- de- 
tivative word ? What is a compound word ? 



62 

Bright, fair, playful, joyless, income, book-store, cloui 
capped, ink, form, uniform, housetop, dreary. 

3. Form derivative words from the following primitivea^ 
and draw a line under the added syllable or letter : — 

Hope, fear, peer, weak, form, grace, poet, weep. 

4. Form compound words by joining some appropriate 
word to each of the following : — 

Chest, bank, fire, weed, toll, work, land, busy. 



ETYMOLOGY. 



LESSON XLV. 

DEFIXITIOIs^S. 



162. Etymology treats of the classification, 
derivation^ and various modifications of words. 

163. A word is the sign of an idea, and is 
either spoken or written. 

164. Words are divided into eight classes^ called 
Parts of Speecli. 

165. The Parts of Speech are the JToun, the 
Adjective, the Pronoim. the Verb, the Ad^i 
verb, the Preposition, the Conjunction, and 
the Interjection. 

Of what does Etymology treat? What is a word? How are wordi 
imded? How many parts of speech are there? What are they? 



LESSON FORTY-FIFTH. 63 

166. A noun is the name of an object. 
Ex. — Peachy Frank, Salem. 

167. An adjective is a word used to limit of 
i^ualify the meaning of a noun or a pronoun. 

Ex. — Wise, sweet, this, many, 

168. A pronoun is a word which takes the 
place of a noun. 

Ex. — I, he, who, they. 

169. A verb is a word which expresses being, 
action, or state. 

Ex. — Be, run, sleep, is written. 

170. An adverb is used to modify the mean- 
ing of a verb, an adjective, a participle, or 
another adverb. 

Ex. — Slowly, first, far. 

171. A preposiition is a word used to show 
the relation between a noun or a pronoun and 
some other word. 

Ex. — Above, with, into, under. 

172. A conjunction is a word used to con- 
nect sentences, or the parts of sentences. 

Ex. — And, but, or, either, 

173. An interjection is used to express 
some strong or sudden emotion of the mird. 

Ex. — 0! alas! ah! alack! 



What is a noun? An adjective? A pronoun? A verb? W^at is an 
adverb? What is a preposition? What is a conjunction? What is an 
interjection? 



64 Greene's intkoduction. 

LESSON XLVI. 

isr u N s. 

174. A noun is the name of an object. 

Ex. — House, tree, Boston, goodness. 

The word '' object'' is here used to denote every species 
of existence, whether material or immaterial. 

The name of any thing which has, or may be supposed 
to have, an independent existence, is a noun. Hence the 
name of a quality, taken alone, or apart from any object, 
IS a noun ; as, hriglitness, smoothness. 

175. Nouns are divided into two classes, 
Proper^ and Common. 

176. A proper noun is the name of an indi- 
vidual object. 

Ex. — James, Erie, Wellington, 

177. A common noun is the name which 
applies to each individual of a class of objects. 

Ex. — Man, boy, house. 

Under the head of common nouns are commonly 
reckoned Collective, Abstract, and Verbal nouns. 

A collective noun is one which, in the singular, denotes 
more than one object; as, army, family, flock. 

An abstract noun is the name of a quality or an action 
considered apart from the object to which it belongs; as, 
goodness, virtue, wisdom, movement, 

A. verbal noun is a participle used as a noun ; as, " He 
was convicted of stealing,'* 

W^hat is a noun? What does the word "object'' denote? When is the 
name of a quality a noun ? How many classes of nouns are there? What 
Is a proper noun ? What is a common noun ? What is a collective noun' 
What is an abstract noun ? What is a verbal noun ? 



LESSON FORTY-STXTH. 65 

Any phrase or group of words used to represent an idea 
»*'hich can be considered alone, is of the nature of a noun 
or substantive; as, "To be good is to be happy ^ 



178. Exercise. (1.) 

1. Select the nouns from the following examples : — 
Beattie, the son of a Scottish farmer, was educated at 

the University of Aberdeen. 

The father of Michael Bruce was a weaver in Scotland. 
Cyprus is an island in the Mediterranean. 

2. Tell which of the nouns above are common, and 
which are proper. Why ? 

3. AVrite a sentence containing two common and two 
proper nouns. 

4. Write upon your slates five answers to the questions 
in your geography lesson. Observe the Cautions in (23), 
and select the nouns. 



Exercise. (2.) # 

Exercises not numbered with heavy type are to be omitted the first 
time going through the book. 

1. Point out the collective, abstract, and verbal noun« 
In the following examples : — 

The hunters discovered a large herd of buffaloes. 
The school was dismissed at twelve o'clock. 
His greatness was excelled only by his goodness. 
Lying is a degrading vice. 
We should be forward in aiding the weak. 

2. Change the following adjectives into abstract 
Qouns : — 

Faithful, hopefuL rough, brittle, sour, mild. 
6 



66 Greece's introduction. 

LESSON XLVIL 

179. To nouns belong Person, 3i'wml>cr, 
iSeiider, and Case, 

PERSOK. 

180. Person is that property of a noun or a 
pronoun which shows its relation to the speaker. 

A noun or a pronoun, representing the object spoken 
of, may stand for the speaker himself, the person spoken 
^0 by the speaker, or merely the person or thing spoken 
oj hj the speaker. Hence the three relations to the 
speaker, called person, 

181. There are three persons^ the first« 
the second, and the thiird. 

182. The first person denotes the speaker. 
Ex. — J, the commander, issue this general order. 

183. The second person denotes the person 
spoken to. 

YiX. — -Children, obey your parents. 

184. The tliird person denotes the person oi 
thing spoken of. 

Ex. — Thomas did come. The harvest is abundant. 

185. Exercise. 

1. Tell the person of the nouns and pronouns in the 
following examples • — 

What belong to nouns ? What is person ? What must a noun or a 
pronoun represent? How many persons are there? What does the fi''*^ 
oerson denote? The second? The third? 



LESSON FORTY-EIGHTH. 67 

Nero was a tyrant. 

Children, obey your parents. 

The ferryman took us safely across the river. 

Babylon, how art thou fallen ! 

Thou art the man. 

My brothers delight in surf-bathing. 

1, Paul, myself beseech you. 

2. Write ten sentences of your own, illustrating the 
three persons, and correct any improper expressions which 
you have heard. 

LESSON XLVIIL 

NUMBER. 

186. ]¥uiiiber is that property of a noun 
which distinguishes one object from more than 
one. 

187. Nouns have ?!2/?o numbers : the singular, 
and the plural. 

188. The singular number denotes but one 
object. 

Ex. — Horse, river, mountain. 

189. The plural number denotes more than 
one object. 

Ex. — Horses, rivers, mountains. 

190. The plural of nouns is regularly- 
formed;, — 

1, By adding s, when the singular ends with a sound 
that can unite with s; as, book, books; tree, trees. 

What is number? How many numbers have nouns? What is the 
singular number? What is the plural? How is the plural of noui^s 
regularly formed? 



68 Greene's introduction. 

2. By adding es, when the singular ends with a sound 
that cannot unite w^ith s; as, box, boxes; church, churches, 

191, The plural of nouns is irregularly 
formed in various ways : — 

1. Nouns ending in y preceded by a consonant, change 
y into i and add es; as, fly, flies; berry, berries; body, 
bodies. If preceded by a vowel, the y is not changed ; as, 
boy, boys; toy, toys; valley, valleys, 

2. Some nouns ending in f and fe change these termi- 
nations to ve, and add s; as, leaf, leaves; loaf, loaves; wife, 
wives. So also with calf, half, sheaf, shelf, life, thief, wharf, 
wolf, elf, and hiife. Other nouns in / and fe form the 
plural regularly; as, gulf gulfs; roof, roofs; fife, fifes, 

3. Nouns ending in o preceded by a consonant, add es; 
as, potato, potatoes ; cargo, cargoes. If preceded by a vowel, 
sis added, as, folio, folios ; cameo, cameos. 

4. The following plurals are very irregular: — Child, 
children; man, men; woman, ivomen ; brother, brothers or 
brethren; mouse, mice; die, dice (dies, stamps) ; tooth, teeth; 
foot, feet; ox, oxen; goose, geese; penny, pence or pennies, 

5. Proper nouns, most abstract nouns, and nouns 
denoting substance, have no plural ; as. Providence, 
goodness, wood, gold. Sometimes, however, we say, *Uha 
Stuarts,'^ " the Johnsons,''^ 

6. In compound words, if the principal word is 
placed first, it is varied to form the plural ; as courts- 
martial, so?i5-in-law ; but if placed last, the final word is 
changed ; as pail/itZs, hand/w^s, &c. 

7. L-etters, marks, and figures are pluralized by 
adding 's; as. the a's, the 9'§, the +'^- 

Give the rule for nouns ending in y. In /and fe. Give the rule f. r 
nouns ending in o. Name eight nouns which have very irregular plurals. 
What kind of nouns have no plural? Give the rule for compound words. 
V\^hat plurals take '« ? 



LESSON FORTY-EIGHTH. 69 

8. Some nouns are used only in the plural ; as, tongs^ 
riches, scissors, embers, ashes, bellows, drawers, 

9. Some nouns are alike in both numbers ; as, dice, 
9heep, tro'ut, dozen, swine, vermin, hose, yoke, and others. 

10. Nouns derived from foreign languages often retain 
their original plurals , as, automaton, automata; axis, axes , 
bandit, banditti; beau, beaux ; cherub, cherubim; focus, foci ^ 
memorandum, memoranda; nebula, nebulce; radius, radii' 
stratum, strata, and others. 

192. Exercise. (1.) 

1. Write the plural of the following nouns, and give the 
rule for the termination : — 

Box, horse, glove, rose, torch, grass, oak, watch. 

2. Fill the following blanks with nouns in the singular 
number : — 

The is a noble animal. 

is a virtue. 

He has met his . 



The sun shines upon the . 

is declared. 

3. Fill the following blanks with plural nouns : — 

take to themselves wings. 

The are very lofty. 

The were well attended. 

Henry has lost his . 

I am delighted with 



4. Correct all the errors which you have noted to-day* 

Exercise. (2.) 
1. Give the plurals of the following nouns, with the 
rules for their formation : — 



Give five nouns used only in the plural. Five alike in both numbers. 
Five plurals from foreign languages. 



70 Greene's introduction. 

Lady, day, leaf, hoof, hero, ox, tooth, spoonful, x^ 
Bolenm, focus, fox, star, ally, alley, sheep. 
2. Fill the following blanks :— 
(1.) With proper nouns : — 

descended the Alps. 

crossed the Delaware. 

I visited . 



(2.) With collective, abstract, or verbal nouns : — 

on the w^ater is pleasant. 

The w^as disbanded. 

The was scattered by the wolves. 

is a vice. 

goeth before a fall. 

Our depends on ourselves. 

3. Give the number of each noun in the exercise. 



LESSON XLIX. 

GENDER. 

193. Gender is the distinction of nouns in 
i?egard to sex. 

194. There are three genders, the maseu- 
line, the feminine^ and the neuter. 

195. Nouns which denote males are of the 

mascuhne gender. 
Ex. — ifa?i, king, hero. 

196. Nouns which denote females are of the 

feminine gender. 

Ex. — Woman, queen, heroine. 

What is gender? How many genders are there? What nouns are 
Df the masculine gender? Of the feminine? 



LESSON FOKTY-NINTH. 71 

197. Nouns which denote objects neitlier 
male nor female^, are of the neuter gender. 

Ex. — Tree, rock, paper. 

Some nouns denote either male or female ; as, parent, 
ehild, cousin. These are said to be of the common gender; 
but as the gender must be either masculine or feminine, 
and may generally be determined by the connection, the 
distinction is scarcely necessary. 

There are three methods of distinguishing the sexes : — 

1. By using different words; as, bachelor, maid; boy, 
girl; brother, sister; father, mother, 

2. By different terminations ; as, count, countess ; 
actor, actress; administrator, administratrix; hero, heroine, 

3. By prefixes and snffixes ; as, land-forJ, land-^ac?i/; 
gentle-ma?i, gentle-iooman ; Ae-goat, sA^-goat ; ma^-servant, 
maici-servant. 

198, Exercise. 

1. Tell the gender of the following nouns : — 

Sailor, cap, lioness, captain, nun, widow, brother, sister, 
bridge, priest, wizard, countess. 

2. Give the feminine of — 

Man, abbot, hero, tiger, heir, prophet, male, widower, 
husband, host, master, king. 
The masculine of — 
Empress, songstress, mother, sister, actress. 

3. Fill these blanks, the first two with common nouns 
in the masculine gender ; the next two with proper nouns^ 
one masculine and one feminine ; the next two with neuter 
nouns : — 

is patient. 

reigns king of beasts. 

What nouns are of the neuter gender? What is said of the oommoa 
gender ? What three methods of distinguishing the sexes ? 



.72 



was a distinguished poet- 
entertained her guests with grace. 



Ella has lost her . 

Harold is reading Cicero's . 

4. Write, correct, or improve any faulty sentences which 
you have collected. 

Let the teacher persist in correcting all erroneous expressionSo 



LESSON L. 

CASE. 

199. Case denotes the relation of a noun or 
a pronoun to other words. 

200. There are three cases^ the nominative, 
the possessive, and the objective^ 

201. The nominative case is the simplest 
form of the noun^ and is commonly the subject 
of a proposition. 

Ex. — George speaks. The door was shut. 

202. The possessive case denotes the rela- 
tion of property or possession. 

Ex. — David's harp. 

203. When a noun or a pronoun follows a 
transitive verb, or a preposition^ it is in the 
objective case. 

Ex. — Thomas opened his knife. The bird sat on the tret. 



What is case? How many cases are there? What is the nominative 
•ase? What is the possessive case? The objective? 



LESSON FIFTIETH. 73. 

FORMATION OF THE POSSESSIVE. 

204. The possessive singular of nouns is regu- 
larly formed by adding an apostrophe (') and 
the letter s to the nominative. 

Ex. — Man's, Calvin s, 

205. When the plural ends in s, the apostrophe 
only is added. 

Ex. — Boys', ladies', kittens'. 

But the apostrophe and ^ are both added when 
it ends in any other letter. 

Ex. — Men's, women's, brethren's. 

The possessive ease is known by its form. But the 
forms of the nominative and objective are alike, and must 
be determined by their relation to other words. 





DECLENSION OF NOUNS 


. 


206. The declension of a noun 


is its variation 


to denote number and case. 






Examples. 






1. Boy. 






Singular . 


Plural 


Norn. 


Boy. 


Boys. 


Poss. 


Boy's. 


Boys'. 


Obj. 


Boy. 
2. Fly. 


Boys. 




Singular. 


Plural. 


Nom, 


Fly. 


Flies. 


Poss. 


Flv's. 


Flies'. 


Obj. 


Fly. 


Flies. 



How is the possessive regularly formed ? Give the rule for the pos- 
sessive plural. Which case is known by its form ? What is the decleo- 
lion of a noun ? Decline Boy. Fly. 



74 GREENERS INTRODUCTION. 

3. John. 

Singular. Plural. 

Nom, John. wanting. 

Poss, John's. . 

Obj. John. , 

207. MODEL FOR PARSING A NOUN. 

'' The dog barks." 
Dog is (1) a noun ; it is the name of an object. 

(2) common ; it is the name of each individual of a 

class of objects. 

(3) third person ; it is spoken of. 

(4) singular number ; it denotes but one. 

(5) masculine gender ; it is the name of a male. 

(6) nominative case; it is the subject of a proposi- 

tion. 

(7) Rule 1. — A noun or a pronoun, used as the sub- 

ject of a proposition, must be in the nomina- 
tive case. 

208. Exercise. 

1. Parse the nouns in the following examples :* — 
England was invaded by the Normans. 
The rain descended. 
The forests disappear. 
I have seen Emily's pet fawn. 
Theodore's horse is lame. 
RoUo went into the garden. 
The mountains raise their heads. 

Decline John. Parse dog in the sentence, ^^ The dog barks." 



* The rules may be omitted the first time going through. 



LESSON FIFTY-FIRST. 75 

Florence loved little Paul. 
Eollo sat by his father's side. 
2. Write five sentences about your walk to school. 

LESSON LI. 

ADJECTIYES. 

209. An adjective is a word used to limit or 
qualify the meaning of a noun or a pronoun. 

Ex. — A good scholar; a costly jewel. 

210. Adjectives are divided into two classes, 
limitinig;, and qiialifying. 

211. A limitisig adjective is used to define 
or restrict the meaning of a noun, without ex- 
pressing any of its qualities. 

Ex. — The house; those men. 

212. A qualifying adjective is one which 
limits the meaning of a noun^ by denoting some 
property or quality. 

Ex. — A virtuous man ; a large tree. 

To this class of adjectives belong the participles which have the sig^ 
nijication of the verb and the construction oif the adjective. When the 
participle is placed before the noun which it modifies, it is called a par- 
ticipial adjective; as, "the rising sun." When it is placed after the noun 
to which it relates, it is called a, particijjle; as, "the sun rising in the 
Bast." 

Any phrase or group of words added to a noun to limit its application 
or restrict its meaning, is of the nature of an adjective; as, ^^The people 
p/ the United States of America." 

"What is an adjective? How are adjectives divided? What is a 
limiting adjective? What is a qualifying adjective? What is said of th« 
participle ? 



76 greexe's introduction. 

213. liimiting adjectives are divided into 
three classes^ articles^ pronominal adjectives^ and 
numeral adjectives. 

214:. The articles are a or an^ and the. 

215. Tlie is called the definite article, because 
it points out some particular object. 

Ex. — The sun. 

216. A, or an, is called the indefinite article, 
because it does not point out any particular 
object. 

Ex. — A pen ; an orchard. 

217. An is used before a vowel sounds and a 
before a consonant sound. 

Ex. — A union, an hour; a ewer, an eagle. 

218. Pronominal adjectives are those which, 
without the use of the article, may represent a 
noun when miderstood. 

Ex.- — Tliu (book) is mine; that is yours. 

The principal pronominal adjectives are:— This, that, these, 
ehose, former, latter, which, what, each, every, either, neither, some, one, 
none, any, all, such, much, both, few, first, last, little, many, own, same, 
geveral, sundry, enough. 

219. l^umeral adjectives are those which 
express number. 

Ex. — One, tivo, third, fourth. 

Into what classes are limiting adjectives divided? What are the arti- 
iles ? What is said of '' the" f Of '' a" or " an" ? When is " an" used ? 
When "a"? What are pronominal adjectives ? What are the principal 
pronominal adjectives? What are numeral adjectives? 



LESSON FIFTY-FIRST. 7/ 

220. Numeral adjectives are divided into car- 
dinal^ which denote how many; 

Ex. — One, two, three, &c. 

Ordinal^ which show which one of a series; 

Ex. — First, second, third, &c. 

And multiplicative, which show rej^etition. 

Ex. — Twofold, threefold, &c. 

221. Exercise. 

1. Tell the hind of adjectives in the following sen- 
tences : — 

These scholars are very studious. • 
Anne is reading Roman history. 
I saw a large flock of birds. 
Two of the boys arrived punctually. 
Dr. Kane explored the Arctic regions. 
Albert took the first premium. 
Few of the committee w^ere present. 
I am reading a very interesting book. 

2. Fill the blanks in the following examples with 
adjectives, and tell the kind of each : — 

men sit at their doors. 

The wind breathes gently forth. 

events cast their shadows before. 

The traveller crossed the sea. 

The nest contained robins. 

3. What words are you in the habit of mispronouncing? 
Write them, and repeat the correct pronunciation often. 

How are numeral adjectives divided? 

7* 



78 Greece's introduction. 

LESSON LIL 

COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES. 

222. There are three degrees of comparison, 
the positive, the comparative, and the super* 
lative. 

223. The positive denotes a quality without 
comparison. 

Ex. — RighteouSy pleasant. 

224. The comparative expresses a higher or 
lower degree than the positive. 

Ex. — This tree is taller than that. Theodore is less 
industrious than his brother. 

225. The superlative expresses the highest 
or lowest degree of the quahty. 

Ex. — The pine is the tallest tree in the grove. This 
boy is the least studious of all the scholars. 

226. The comparative of monosyllables is 
regularly formed by adding r or er^ and the 

superlative by adding st or est^ to the positive. 
Ex. — Wise, wiser, wisest; hold, holder, holdesL 

227. The comparative of most adjectives of 
more than one sjdlable is formed by prefixing 
more or less, and the superlative by prefixing 
most or least, to the positive. 

Ex. — Lidustrious, more industrious, most industrious; 
dutiful, less dutiful, least dutifid. 

How many degrees of comparison are there? "What does the positivf 
iegree denote ? The comparative ? The superlative ? 



LESSON FIFTY-SECOND. 



79 



The following adjectives are compared irregularly: 



Positive. 


Comparative. 


Superlative. 


Good. 


Better. 


Best. 


Bad or ill. 


Worse. 


Worst. 


Much or many. 


More. 


Most. 


Little. 


Less or lesser. 


Least. 


Far. 


Farther. 


Farthest. 


Near. 


Nearer. 


Nearest or next^ 


Late. 


Later. 


Latest or last. 


Old. 


Older or elder. 

228. Exercise. 


Oldest or eldest. 



1. Give the degree of comparison of the following 
adjectives : — 

Wild, colder, mildest, innocent, most comfortable, frail, 
least active. 

2. Compare, — 

Brave, strong, honorable, useful, thrifty, considerable, 
serene. 



229. MODEL FOR PARSING AN ADJECTIYE. 

" The faithful man will be rewarded.^' 

Faithful is (1) an adjective; it limits or qualifies a noun. 

(2) qualifying ; it denotes a quality. 

(S) positive degree; it expresses quality with- 
out comparison, — compared, faithfvl^ 
more faithful, most faithful. 

(4) it belongs to " man." 

(5) Rule F. — An adjective or a participle 

belongs to some noun or pronoun. 



How are adjectives regularly compared? How are adjectives of mora 
than one syllable usually compared? Compare good, bad, ill, much, 
many, little, far, near, late, old. Parse "faithful," as in the model. 



80 • geeene's introduction. 

Parse the adjectives in the following examples : — 
There is no prouder grave. 
His deeds have rendered him immortal. 
They toiled through the Syrian desert. 
Solomon was the wisest of kings. 

The breaking waves dash'd high 
On a stern and rock-bound coast; 

And the woods against a stormy sky 
Their giant branches toss'd. 

LESSON LIIL 

PRONOUNS. 

230. A pronoun is a word which takes the 
place of a noun. 

Ex. — The farmer ploughs his field ; he reaps his wheat, 
and gathers it into his barn. 

231. Pronouns are divided into three classes, 
personal^ relative^ and interrogative, 

232. A personal pronoun is used both to 
represent a noun, and to show whether it is of 
the firsts second^ or third person. 

233. The personal pronouns are. — 

I, plural we, of the first person. 

Tliou or you, plural ye or you, of the second persoUc 
He, plural they, of the third person, masculine. 
S3ie, plural they, of the third person, feminine. 
It, plural tliey, of the third person, neuter. 

What is a pronoun? How are they divided? What is a personal 
pronoun ? Name the personal pronouns. Name the compound personal 
pronouns. What modifications bel©ng to personal pronouns ? Decline I, 
ihoH, he, shcf it. 



LESSON FIFTY-THIRD. 



81 



234. The compound personal pronouns are, — 

Alyself, ourselTes (first person) ; thyself, yonrself, 
I'ourselTes (second person) ; bimself, herself^ itself, 

themselTes (third person). 

235. To pronouns belong PersoUy Number^ 
Gender^ and Case, 



DECLENSION OF PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 

236. The personal pronouns are thus de- 
clined : — 

First Person. 

Singular, Plural, 



Norn, 
Poss, 
Obj, 


I. 

My or mine. 
Me. 


We. 

Our or ours. 

Us. 




Second Person. 


Nom. 
Poss. 
Obj. 


Singular, 

Thou. 

Thy or thine. 

Thee. 


Plural, 

Ye or you. 
Your or yours. 
You. 




Third Person. 


Masculine. 


Nom. 
Poss. 
Obj. 


Singular, 

He. 
His. 
Him. 


Plural. 

They. 

Their or theirs, 

Them. 




Third Person. 


Femivine. 


Nom. 
Poss. 
Obj, 


Singular. 

She. 

Her or hers. 

Her. 


Plural. 

They. 

Their or theips. 

Them. 



82 



GREEXE S IXTRODUCTION. 



Nom. 
Poss, 
Obj. 



Nom, 
Poss. 
Obj. 



Nom, 
Poss, 
Obj. 



Third Person. Neuter, 

jSingular. Plural, 

It. They. 

Its. Their or theirs. 

It. Them. 

First Person. 

Singular. Plural. 

Myself. Ourselves. 



Myself. Ourselves. 

Second Person. 

Singular. Plural. 

Thyself. Yourselves. 



Thyself. Yourselves. 

Third Person. 



3Ia8cuUne. 

Nom. Himself 



Singular. 
Feminine. 

Herself 



Neuter. 

Itself. 



Itself. 



Plural, 



Themselves. 



Obj. Himself. Herself. 

Of the possessives, my, thy, her, our, your, their, are used 
T\^hen the noun is expressed ; mine, thine, hers, ours, yours, 
and theirs, when it is understood ; and the latter must be 
changed to the former whenever the noun is supplied. 
*' That book is ?/oi^7's; this is mine.'^ " That book is ^our 
book ; this is my book.'' 

When mine, thine, &c., are used as in the above ex 
ample, they seem to perform a double office : first, to 
represent the speaker, hearer, or person spoken of, as a 
possessor ; and, secondly, like other limiting or qualifying 
words, when the noun is understood to represent or stand 

AVhen are my, thy, <tc., used? When mine, thine, <fcc. ? Explain the 
Rse of mine, thine, &,c. 



JLESSON riFTY-THIRB. 83 

for that noun, not as a pronoun does, but as an adjective. 
Thus, we say, ^'This [book] is an arithmetic; that [book] 
is a geography." " The violent [persons] take it by force." 
*Mi7ie [my task] was an easy task." Properly, neither of 
the above words is a noun. The first three are adjectives 
used to limit the noun understood, which follows them, and 
the last a personal pronoun in the possessive case, used to 
limit the noun task, understood. If it is ever proper to 
say that thisy that, or violent are used as nouns, it is equally 
so of the word mme, not in its pronominal, but in its ad- 
jective office. 

237. MODEL FOR PARSING A PERSONAL PRONOUN. 

*^ The boys have lost their boat." 
Their is (1) sl pronoun; it stands for a noun. 

(2) personal; it is used to represent a noun and tell 

its person. 

(3) it represents boys for its antecedent. 

(4) declined, (sing.) no7n., he ; poss., his ; ohj., 

him ; (plural) nom., they ; poss.y their or 
theirs ; obj., them. 

(5) it is of the third person, plural number, mascu- 

line gender, because its antecedent is. 

(6) Hule III. — A pronoun must agree with its an- 

tecedent in person, number, and gender. 

(7) possessive case, and limits boat, 

(8) Bide VIL — A noun or a pronoun used to limit 

another noun, by denoting possession, must 

be in the possessive case. 
Parse the pronouns in the following examples : — 
The king found himself in great distress. 
Louisa has lost her gold pencil. 

Parse "tlieir/' as in the model. 



84 Greene's ixtroduction. 

Arnold betrayed his country. 

I wish to visit them. 

We are going into the country. 

Granville will bring it to me. 

Hast thou a«star to guide thy path ? 



LESSON LIV. 

RELATIVE AND INTERROGATIYE PRONOUNS. 

238. A relative pronoun is used both to re^ 
present a preceding noun, called the antecedent^ 
and to connect with it a dependent proposition. 

Ex. — Those wlio wish for favors, must assist others. 

239. The relatives are whiOj wltiela, that, 
and Trliat. 

240. Wlio is used to represent persons; which 
and what^ to represent things; and that^ to repre- 
sent both persons and things. 

241. l¥liat is both an adjective and a relative. 

Ex. — " He gave me what books I needed ;" — that is, 
** He gave me those books which I needed." 

Wliat is both a relative pronoun and a limiting adjec- 
tive, and is equivalent to that or those which. When the 
antecedent is expressed, what should be parsed (1) as an 
adjective; (2) as a relative pronoun; as, '^He gave me 
what books I wanted.'' When the antecedent is omitted, 
die indefinite noun "things" may be supplied, and thus 

What is a relative pronoun? What are the relatives? What are they 
pevcrall«y used to represent? What is said of the relative ^' whaf ? To 
what is it equivalent when the noun is understood ? How should it b» 
Darsed ? 



LESSON FIFTY-FOUBTH. 85 

the case is always as above ; or, it may be taken (1) as an 
adjective used as a noun ; it is then itself the antecedent ; 
(2j as a relative relating to itself as antecedent ; as, " He 
gave me what I wanted/' 

242. The compound relatives are whoso, 
whoever, whosoever, whichever, which- 
soever, whatever, and whatsoever, 

243. The interrogative pronouns are used 
in asking questions. They are who, which, 
and what. 

244. The noun for which the interrogative 
stands is found in the answer. 
Ex. — " Who came ?" Ans, — George. 

Which and what commonly refer to things^ while who 
always refers to persons. The former, when followed by a 
noun, are interrogative adjectives; as, ^^What lessons have 
we to-day ?" 

. DECLENSION OF RELATIVE AND INTERROGATIVE 
PRONOUNS. 





Singular and Plural. 


Singular and Plural, 


Nom, 


Who. 


Which. 


Foss. 


Whose. 


Whose. 


Obj. 


Whom, 


Which. 



What and that are not declined ; ivhoever and whichever, 
whosoever and whichsoever, are declined like the simple 
pronouns who and which. 

Name the compound relatives. What are interrogative ^.ronouns? 
Name them. Where is the noun for which the interrogative stands? 
When are ichich and what interrogative adjectives? Decrne the pro- 
Douns who and which. What is said of the other relatives ? 



86 Greene's intboduotion. 

245. MODELS FOR PARSING. 

"The man who is attached to religion, may be relied on." 
Who is (1) a pronowi ; it takes the place of the noun man, 

(2) relative; it represents the noun man as its an- 

tecedent, and connects with it the proposition 
" who is attached to religion/' 

(3) declined — nom., who ; poss., whose; obj., whom. 

(4) third person^ singularnumher, masculine gender, 

Kule III. 

(5) nominative case, and is the subject of the propo' 

sition " who is attached," &c. Kule L 

^' I gave him what he wanted." 
Wliat is (1) a relative prononn, used also as an adjective. 

(2) as an adjective, it belongs to "things" under- 

stood, or may be used as the noun "things/' 
and is equivalent to those. Rule V. 

(3) as a relative, it relates to "things," or to itself, 

used as the noun " things," and is equivalent 
to which. 

(4) as antecedent, it is of the third person, plural 

number, neuter gender, objective case, and 
is the object oi gave. Rule VIII. 

(5) as relative, it is of the third person, plural 

number, neuter gender (Rule III.), and ia 
governed by ivanted. Rule VIII. 

These models, with a slight change, answer for the interrogative pro- 
aouns. 

246. Exercise* 

1. Parse the pronouns in the following examples : — 
My father, whom I loved, is dead. 

Parse '' who," as in the model. Parse *' what." 



LESSON FIFTY-FOURTH. 87 

He best can bear reproof who merits praise. 

Look at that beautiful butterfly which is sporting so 
gayly in the sunshine. 

The vessel in which I embarked w^as wrecked. 

I could not discover what he came for. 

AVhat have you done to him? 

Who have visited the panorama ? 

The man that attacked you is arrested. 

2. Write out and correct the faulty examples which 
you have heard this week. 

Tliat is a relative when who, which, or whom can be 
used in its place. It is an adjective when a noun can be 
placed after it ; as, " That (glove) is mine." In all other 
cases it is a conjunction, 

1. Tell what part of speech " that" is in the following 
examples : — • 

Give me that knife. 

Do you like the horse that you bought ? 
The lawyer that I consulted has left the city. 
That is my eldest sister. 
How large that melon is ! 
I think that Cornelia will go. 
The strange man that Richard met, was a gipsy. 
Eveline has gone to hear that celebrated singer. 
Horace hopes that he shall enter college next year. 
That picture that you admired, is sold. 
I think that that machine that you examined, will 
uucceed. 

2. Write two sentences containing "that" as a relative;! 
two, as an adjective; and two, as a conjunction. 

3. Collect all your own faulty expressions for the last 
w^eek, and repeat the corrections aloud. 

What remark upon the word "that"? 



88 GFvEEXE S INTRODUCTION, 

LESSON LV. 

YERBS.— CLASSES OF VERBS. 

247. A verb is a word which expresses being, 
action^ or state. 

Ex. — Be, read, sleep, is loved. 

The being, action, or state may be affirmed, assumed, or 
used abstractly; as, "George runs; George running; to 
Tun^ 

When a verb aiBrms something of a person or thing, it 
is called finite, being limited by the person and number 
of its subject. When it has no subject, it does not affirm, 
and is not limited, and is, hence, called the infinitive ; as, 
*' to runJ' 

248. Verbs are divided^ according to their iise^ 
into transitive and intransitive. 

249. A transitive verb requires the addition 
of an object to complete its meaning. 

Ex. — James struck John. 

250. An intransitive verb does not require 
the addition of an object to complete its meaning. 

Ex. — The horse runs. 

251. Verbs are divided^ according to their 
forrn^ into regular and irregular, 

252. A regular verb is one which forms its 



What is a verb? How may the being, action, or state be used? What 
fs a finite verb ? What is an infinitive ? How are verbs divided according 
lo their use ? According to their form? What is a transitive verb? An 
Intransitive ? What is a regular verb ? 



LESSON FIFTY-FIFTH. 89 

past tense and past participle by adding "ed''^ 
to the present tense. 

Ex. — Repair, repaired; love, loYed, 

253. An irregular verb is one which does 
not form the past tense and past participle by 
the addition of ed to the present tense. 

Ex. — See, saw, seen; write, wrote, written. 

254. A defective verb is one in which some 
of the principal parts are wanting. 

Ex. — May, might (participles wanting). 

255. An auxiliary verb is one which is em- 
ployed in the conjugation of other verbs. 

Ex. — Have, in " have loved." 

256. An impersonal verb is one by which 
an action or state is asserted independently of any 
particular subject. 

Ex. — It rains; it snows. 

257. A redundant verb has more than one 
form for its past tense and past participle. 

Ex. — Thrive, thrived or throve, thrived or thriven. 



What is an irregular verb? A defective verb? An auxiliary? An 
impersonal verb ? A redundant verb ? 

* In every regular verb the past tense and past participle are invari- 
ably formed by adding ed to the present tense. But in such verbs as 
love, move, live, &G., the final e is dropped before the addition ia 
made. 



90 Greene's inteoduction. 



258. Exercise. 

1. Point out the verbs in the following examples, and 
tell whether they are transitive or intransitive, regular or 
irregular : — 

The twilight deepens. 

I have dug the garden. 

Gertrude is travelling in Europe. 

Have you read Everett's oration ? 

The sexton rings the bell. 

The lady invited her friends to visit her. 

The little boy is very fond of his rocking-horse. 

They act charades. 

Milton wTote Paradise Lost. 

2. Write five sentences containing regular and five con« 
taining irregular verbs. ^. 

3. Write five sentences containing transitive and five 
containing intransitive verbs. 



LESSON LVI. 

259. To verbs belong voice, mode, tensie, 
number, and persion. 

VOICE. 

260. Toice is that form of the transitive verb 
which shows whether the subject acts^ or is 
acted upon. 

261. There are two voices, the active and 
the pasisive. 

What modifications belong to verbs ? What is voice ? How many 
Voices are there ? 



lesso:n fifty-sixth. 91 

262. The active voice represents the subject 
as acting. 

Ex. — John striich William. 

Here John is the subject, and is the one who acts, 

263. The passive voice represents the subject 

as acted upon. 

Ex. — William ivas struck by John. 
Here William is the subject, but he does not act; he 
only receives the action put forth by John. 

264. The passive form of the verb consists of 
the verb to be, in its various modes and tenses^ 
joined to the passive participle of the verb. 

Ex. — It is moved ; It was moved ; It will he moved. 

The passive voice is used when the actor is unknown, or when we wish 
t'a conceal his name. 

Intransitive verbs have no passive voice. Such verbs 
as " I am comef " Babylon is fallen/' are not passive, but 
intransitive with a passive form. 

Some verbs, usually intransitive, become transitive 
when used with a causative signification, or with a noun 
of kindred meaning ; as, " They ran a train (caused it to 
run) at the rate of forty miles an hour;" "He ran a race/' 
" He sleeps the sleep of death.'' These verbs may have a 
passive form ; as, '' The train was run,'' &c. 

265. Exercise. 

1. Point out the verbs in the following examples; teli 
which are transitive and which are intransitive; which 



What is the active voice? The passive? Of what does the passive 
form of the verb consist? What is said of intransitive verbs? When are 
intransitive verbs used transitively ? 



92 

are regular and which are irregular ; which are of the 
active and which of the passive voice : — 

Abraham sat in the door of his tent. He lived to a 
good old age. 

May I live the life of the righteous. 

Chaucer was buried in Westminster Abbey. 

Spenser was born in 1553. 

The quality of mercy is not strained. 

Ay, call it holy ground, 

The soil where first they trod : 
They have left unstained what there they found, 

Freedom to worship God. 

The stars were hidden by a thick cloud. 
Another race has filled these populous borders. 
The melancholy days are come. 
The brightness of their smile was gone. 
Group after group are gathering. 

To prayer ! to prayer 1 for the sun hath gone, 
And the gathering darkness of night comes on. 



LESSON LVII. 

MODE. 

266. Mode is the manner in which the being, 
action, or state is asserted. 

267. There are commonly reckoned five 
modes, — the indicative^ the potential, the 
liubjunctive, the imperative^ and the in« 
finitive. 

What is mode ? How many modes are there ? 



LESSON FIFTY-SEVENTH. 93 

The infinitive is not properly a mode of the verb, as it does not assert 
action at all. It may be called simply the infinitive. 

268. The indicative mode asserts a thing as 
actually existing. 

Ex. — James loves ; William was struck. 

269. The potential mode asserts the power ^ 
liberty^ permission^ necessity^ or duty of acting, or 
being in a certain state. 

Ex. — We can sing; We may write; He must read; 
They should obey the law. 

270. The snbjwnetive mode asserts a thing 

as conditional or doubtful. 

Ex.— If he leave me ; Though he slay me. 

271. The imperative mode asserts a com- 
mayid, an entreaty^ or a permission. 

Ex. — Write; Oo thou; Be admonished. 

272. The infinitive represents the action or 
Btate as an abstract noun. 

Ex. — To write; To be seen. 

273. Exercise. 

1. Give the modes of the following verbs. 

The gentle needs the strong to sustain it. 

Lead on ! my orphan boy ! It may bring to thee a joy. 

- — — God hath spoken, 

And the strong arm I leaned upon is broken. 

Define the indicative mode. The potential. The subjunctiva. Th« 
Vmperative. The infinitive. 



94 GREENERS INTRODUCTION. 

Thou wilt dream that the world is fair. 

Canst thou bind the sweet influences of Pleiades? 

Rend your hearts, and not your garments. 

Though he slay me, yet w^ill I trust in him. 

2. Write examples illustrating the difierent modes. 

LESSON LVIII. 

PARTICIPLES. 

274. A participle is a word having the sig- 
nification of the verb, but the construction of the 
adjective. 

Ex. — We found him lying on the ground. Having 
written his letter, he sent it to his friend. 

The participle is so called from its participating in the 
properties of the verb and adjective. 

Sometimes the participle, with the signification of the 
verb, has the construction of the noun ; as, " He was en- 
gaged in reading Shakspeare." 

275 There are properly two participles, the 
present and the perfect; as, reading^ having read ; 
(being) loved^ having heen loved, 

276. There are, however, three forms com- 
monly called participles, the present^ the past, 
and the perfect. 

Examples. 

Present. Past. Perfect. 

Active Voice. Loving. Loved. Having loved. 

Passive Voice. Being loved. Loved, Having been loved. 

What is a participle? Why so called? What construction has the 
participle sometimes ? How many participles are there ? What three 
forms are commonly used ? 



LESSON FIFTY-EIGHTH. 95 

The torm called the past participle was probably a passiv^participle, 
having always a passive meaning; as, "He has treasures concealed/' 
*'He has concealed treasures." This last form of expre:«sion has come 
eventually to assume an active meaning; as, "He has concealed his trea- 
sures." In this change of meaning, it has properly lost its character aa 
a participle. It never partakes of the properties of an adjective, but is 
purely verbal, being associated with have in the predicate, and belongs 
equally to transitive or intransitive verbs. Yet, alone, it is not a verb, 
since it has no po-wer to predicate. We cannot say, "He written;" 
"They eaten." It is used with have, to denote a completed act. 

277. The present active participle denotes 
an action or state present and in progress at the 
time represented by the principal verb. 

Ex. — We find, found, or shall find him sitting in a 
chair. 

This participle always ends in ing, and has an active signification, and 
may be either transitive or intransitive. Like the other participles, it 
dates from the time of the principal verb, and not from the time of 
speaking. 

278. The present passive participle denotes 
the reception of an act at the time represented 
by the principal verb. 

Ex.— He lives, lived, will live, loved by all. 

279. The perfect active participle denotes 
an action or state completed at the time repre- 
sented by the principal verb. 

Ex. — Having finished his speech, he sat down. 

The actual time of the completion may be prior to the time denot©»i 
by the principal verb. 

What is said of the past participle ? What does the present active 
participle denote? What remark upon the present active participle? 
What does it denote? What does the present passive participle denote? 
What does the perfect active participle denote ? What remark? 



96 GREENE S INTRODUCTION. 

280r The perfect passive participle denotes 

the reception of an act past and completed at the 

time represented by the principal verb. 

Ex. — Having been driven from home, he enlisted in 
the army. 

281. The action or state expressed by the par- 
ticiple may be either predicated or assumed. 

Ex. — The horse is running through the street; The 
horse running through the street. 

282. Exercise, 

1. Give the active participles of — 

Sit, lay, do arrive, delay. 

2. Give the participles of — 

Throw, write, destroy, obtain. 

3. Classify the participles in the following examples: — 
Having crossed the river, I ascended the mountain. 
Philip, running very fast, soon overtook his father. 
Virginia died, lamented by all. 

I saw Emily sitting by the window. 

Having come to the shore, we moored our boat. 

Honor lost, all is lost. 

Having once been deceived, I could trust him no longer. 

See the meadow, covered with flowers. 

283. MODEL FOR PARSING A PARTICIPLE. 

Having written my letter, I directed it carefully. 

What does the perfect passive participle show ? How may the parti- 

eiple be used ? Parse " having written/' as in the model. 



LESSON FIFTY-EIGHTH. 97 

Having written is (1) a participle. Why ? From write 
(write, wrote, written). 

(2) perfect active. Why ? (Writing, 

written, having written.) 

(3) belongs to " I." Bule, — An adjec- 

tive or a participle must belong 
to some noun or pronoun. 

He is occupied in teaching German. 
Teaching is a participial noun. As a transitive participle^ 
it is limited by German as its object. As a noun, it is third 
person, singular number, neuter gender, objective case, and 
completes the relation of the preposition in. Rule, — A 
noun or pronoun used to complete the relation of a prepo- 
sition is in the objective case. 

Parse the following participles : — 
Edith went on her way, singing merrily. 
In keeping his commandments there is great reward. 
Truth, crushed to earth, will rise again. 
Being defeated many times, they finally retired. 
. Having taken the city, the general gave it up to pillage. 
The grass having been mown, the hay-makers returned 
home. 

Lawrence fell from the tree, in attempting to reach the 
uest. 

Uttered not, yet comprehended. 

Is the spirit's voiceless prayer ; 

Soft rebukes, with blessings ended^ 

Breathing from her lips of air. 

I see them, escaped from these perils, pursuing their all 
but desperate undertaking, and landed at last on the ic^ 
clad rocks of Plymouth. 

Parse " teaching.'* 



98 gkee^'e's introduction. 

LESSON LIX. 

TENSE. 

284. Tense denotes the time of an action oi 
an events with reference to the time of speaking. 

285. An action is progressive when it is 
represented as unjinished; perfect when it is 
represented as completed; and indefinite when 
both of these states are merely supposed^ but not 
indicated. 

Ex. — I am writing; I have written; I write, 

286. There are three divisions of time, the 
past^ the present^ and the future, 

287. Each division has two tenses, an absolutt 
and a relative. There are, therefore, six tenses, 
three absolute and three relative. 

Examples. 
Absolute, I write. I wrote. I shall write. 

Relative. I have written. I had written. I shall have written. 

288. The tenses are the present., the present 
perfect., the past^ the past perfect^ the future^ the 
future perfect, 

289. The present tense represents what takes 
place in present time. 

Ex. — I see, I am seeing, I do see, I am seen. 

What does tense denote? Why do we have different forms of the verb 
to denote the same time? How many divisions of time are there? How 
many tenses in each division ? Give the examples. Name the six tenses, 
iThat does the present tense represent? 



LESSON FIFTY-NINTH. 99 

Present time may mean the moment of speaking, or it may mean a 
period of time including the moment of speaking ; as, to-doy, this week, 
this year. The present tense may be used to denote an act, complete at 
the moment of speaking; as, ^^ I see it;'' or incomplete ; as, " The boy ?« 
Hudying /' — as h custom or habit; as, *'He studies music;'' — as a universal 
P'uth; as, '^ God is just." It is also used for other tenses; as, ^'Matthew 
traces the descent of Joseph ; Luke traces that of Mary." 

290. The present perfect tense represents a 
past event completed in present time. 

Ex. — I have seen, I have been seeing, I have been seen. 

Present time in the perfect tense always embraces a period including 
the time of speaking and the time in which the act or event is completed. 
The completion of the act takes place prior to the time of speaking, but 
always within the time assumed as present; otherwise the past should be 
used. 

291. The past tense represents what took 
place in time wholly past. 

Ex. — I saw, I ivas seeing, I did see, I was seen, 

292. The past perfect tense represents a past 
event as completed in time wholly past. 

Ex. — I had seen, I had been seeing, I had been seen, 

293. The future tense represents what will 
take place in future time. 

Ex.— I shall see, I shall be seeing, I shall be seen, 

294. The future perfect tense represents an 

event as completed in future time. 

Ex. — I shall have seen, I shall have been seeing, I shall 
have been seen. 

What do we mean by present time ? What does the present perfect 
tense denote? What does present time in the perfect tense embrace? 
What does the past tense represent? The past perfect? The future? 
The future perfect ? 



100 GREENERS INTRODUCTION. 

295. The indicative and subjunctive modes 
have six tenses each; the potential, four; the 
infinitive;, two ; and the imperative, one. 

FORMS OF THE VERB. 

296. Transitive verbs have four forms, the 
common^ the emphatic^ the progressive^ and the 
passive, 

Ex. — I love, I do love, I am loving, I am loved, 

297. Intransitive verbs may have three 
forms, the common, the emphatic, and the pro- 
gressive, 

Ex. — I sity I do sit, I am sitting. 

298. The eommon form represents an act 
indefinitely, as a custom, or as comj)leted with- 
out reference to its progress. 

Ex. — I love, I loved, I shall love, I have loved. 

299. The empltatic form represents an act 
with emphasis, or is used in asking questions. 

Ex. — I do write, I did write. Does he write f 

300. The progressive form represents an act 
in its progress, either as yet unfinished, as, '^ I 
am. writing,'' or as completed ; as, " I have been 
writing!' 

How many tenses has each mode? How many forms have transitive 
verbs ? How many have intransitive ? What is the eommon form ? . The 
•mphatic ? The progressive ? 



LESSON FIFTY-NINTH. 101 

301. The passive form represents the recep- 
tion of an act by the subject. 

Ex. — I am loved, I was loved, I shall be loved, 

302. The itumber and person of the verb 
are properties which show its agreement with the 
subject. Like the subject^ the verb may have 
two numbers and three persons. 

The form of the verb " to be " changes to show the number and per- 
son. In the solemn scriptural or poetic style, the second person singular, 
indicative present, ends in est ; as, " Lovest thou me?" The third person 
singular, commonly formed by adding s or es to the simple verb, assumes 
eth in the solemn style ; as, ^^ He goeth." 

303. Exercise. 

1. Tell the tenses of the following verbs : — 
Did you hear the lecture ? 
Archibald listened attentively. 
It will not rain. 
Augusta had intended to go. 
I have heard the Irish orator. 

My father saw the constellation of the Southern Cross. 
Is Theodore confident of success ? 
I shall have finished my work when Maria arrives. 
Had your cousin read the book ? 
The hills were covered with snow. 
2. Tell the tenses and forms of the following verbs :— 

The paper is published in Boston. 

Sorrow is the common lot of man. 

I do not mind the storm. 

W^hat is the passive form ? What is said of the number and person 
of the verb ? How is the second person singular formed ? How is th© 
third person ? 



102 gkeene's intkoduction. 

Carlton has gained the prize. 

Guy has been learning to skate. 

Charlemagne was beloved by his people. 

Shepherd, lead on ! 

Thus far shalt thou go. 

If thy brother die, he shall rise again. 

Thou must go to rest. 

He sun)i to repose where the red heaths are blended. 

Pale mourned the lily, where the rose had died. 

His own mother would hardly have known him. 

Ida was walking on the beach. 

The sun will have set when I reach home. 



LESSON LX. 

CONJUGATION. 

304. The conjugation of a verb is the regu- 
lar arrangement of its several modes^ tenses^ voices, 
numbers^ and^er^on^. 

305. The conjugation of the verb is effected 
by a dtange of its form^ or by the use of 
auxfiliariegi. 

Thr only tenses which change their form are the present and the past; 
as, sit, sitfcs^, sits, sat, sat/'es^ 

306. Auxiliary verbs are those which are 

used in conjugating other verbs. They are — 

Present — Do, be, have, shall, will, may, can, must. 
P2st — Did, was, had, should, would, might, could. 

What is the conjugation of a verb ? How is the conjugation of a verb 
effected? What are the only tenses that change their form? What are 
ttuxiliary verbs ? Name the auxiliaries in the present tense. In the past. 



LESSON SIXTIETH. 



103 



307. The principal partis of a verb are the 
^present indicative^ the past indicative^ and the 
pa^t pa^rticiple. 





Examples. 




Present. 

Explain. 

Reply. 

Write. 


Past. 

Explained. 

Replied. 

Wrote. 


Past Participle. 

Explained. 

Replied. 

Written. 


Shine. 


Shone. 


Shone. 


Hurt. 


Hurt. 


Hurt. 



CONJUGATION OF THE VERB "TO BE/^ 

308. The conjugation of a verb is effected either 
by changing its form or by prefixing one or- more 
auxiliaries to some one of its forms. 

Let the pupil observe the forms of the tenses, as he learns the eonja- 
gation of the different modes and tenses. 





INDICATIVE 


MODE. 


1. 

2. 
3. 


Present Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

I am, We are, 
Thou art. You are. 
He is. They are. 




Present Perfect Tense. 


1. 
2. 
3. 


Singular. 

I have been, 
Thou hast been, 
He has been. 


Plural. 

We have been, 
You have been, 
They have been. 



"What are the principal parts of a verb? Give the principal parts of 
** explain, '' " reply," " write," " shine," *' hurt." Conjugate the verb " to 
be." 



104 Greene's introduction. 

Past Tense. 

Singular. Plural, 

1. I was. We were, 

2. Thou wast, You were, 

3. He was. They were. 

Past Perfect Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I had been, We had been, 

2. Thou hadst been, You had been, 

3. He had been. They had been. 

Future Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I shall or will be, We shall or will be, 

2. Thou shalt or wilt be, You shall or will be, 

3. He shall or will be. They shall or will be. 

Future Perfect Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I shall or will have been, We shall or wiU ^a-ve been, 

2. Thou shalt or wilt have been, You shall or will have been, 

3. He shall or will have been. They shall or will have been. 



potential mode. 
Present Tense. 

Singular. Plur^^.. 

1. I may be,* We may be, 

2. Thou mayst be, You may be, 

3. He may be. They may be. 

Present Perfect Tense. 

Singular. Plural 

1. I may have been, We may have been, 

2. Thou mayst have been, You may have been, 

3. He may have been. They may have been. 



* Conjugate with each auxiliary, or with all united, thus: I »j«^. can, 
»r must b«. 



LESSON SIXTIETH. 105 

Past Tense. 

Singular, Plural, 

1. I might be, We might be, 

2. Thou mightst be, You might be, 

3. He might be. They might be. 

Past Perfect Tense. 



1. 

2. 
3. 


Singular. Plural, 

I might have been, We might have been. 
Thou mightst have been. You might have been, 
He might have been. They might have been* 




SUBJUNCTIVE MODE. 


1. 
2. 
3. 


Present Tense. 

Singular, Plural, 

If I am. If we are, 
If thou art, If you are. 
If he is. If they are. 



Present Perfect Tense. 

Singular, Plural. 

1. If I have been. If we have been. 

2. If thou hast been, If you have been, 

3. If he has been. If they have been. 

Past Tense. 

singular. Plural. 

1. If I was. If we were, 

2. If thou wast. If you were, 

3. If he was. If they were. 

Past Perfect Tense. 

Singular. Plural, • 

1. If I had been, If we had been, 

2. If thou hadst been, If you had been, 

3. If he had been. If they had been. 



106 



eREENE S INTRODUCTION. 



Future Tense. 

Singular, Plural. 

1. If I shall or will be, If we shall or will be, 

2. If thou shalt or wilt be, If you shall or will be, 

3. If he shall or will be. If they shall or will be. 



Future Perfect Tense. 

Singular. Plu 



'al. 



1. If I shall or will have been, If we shall or will have been, 

2. If thou shalt or wilt have been, If you shall or will have been, 

3. If he shall or will have been. If they shall or will have been. 



SUBJUNCTIVE MODE. (Subjunctive form,) 

Besides the forms already given, tne subjunctive has another in tho 
present and past, peculiar to itself. 



Singular, 

1. If I be, 

2. If thou be, 

3. If he be. 



Present Tense. 



Plural, 

If we be, 
If you be, 
If they be. 



Singular. 

1. If I were, 

2. If thou wert, 

3. If he were. 



Past Tense. 



Plural. 

If we were, 
If you were. 
If they were. 



IMPERATIVE MODE. 

Present Tense. 



Singular. 

Be, or Be thou. 



Plural, 

Be ye or you. 



INFINITIVE MODE. 

Present Tense. To be. 
Present Perfect. To have been. 



LESSON SIXTIETH. 107 



PARTICIPLES. 



Present. Being. Past, 

Perfect. Having been. 

Common Style. 

Conjugate the verb Be in the common style, thus :— 
INDICATIVE MODE. 

Present Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I am, We are, 

2. You are, You are, 

3. He is. They are. 

Present Perfect Tense. 

Sinyular. Plural, 

1. I have been, We have been, 

2. You have been, You have been, 

3. He has been. They have been. 

In the same manner let the learner go through all the tenses and 
modes. 

309. Synopsis is a short view of the verb^ 
showing its forms through the modes and tenses 
in a single number and person. 

Ex. — In the first person singular, we have, Ind. Pres., 
I am; Pres, Per,, I have been; Past, I was; Past Per., I 
had been; Fut, I shall be; Fut. Per., I shall have been^ 
Pot. Pres., I may be ; Pres. Per,, I may have been ; Pa^t, 
I might be; Past Per,, I might have been. Sub. Pres,, 
If I am, &c. 

310. Exercise. 

In what mode and tense are the following verb? — 

I am. He has been. If I were. You can be. He 



108 GREENERS INTRODUCTION. 

might be. To have been. They were. He will have 
been. You might be. She had been. You will be. To 
be. I must have been. Thou art. If he be. If you are. 
They might have been. We were. I had been. Thou 
wast. He is. 

Give a synopsis of " to be/' in the Ind. second person 
singular, sec. plur., first per. plur., sec. per. plur., third 
per. plur. Pot. third per. sing, second per. plur., third 
per. plur. Sub. sec. per. sing., sec. per. piur., third per. 
plur., first per. plur. 



LESSON LXL 

CONJUGATION OF THE EEGULAR TEBB "TO LOTE/' 

ACTIVE YOICE. 
INDICATIVE MODE. 

Present Tense. 

Singular. Plural, 

1. I love, We love, 

2. Thou lovest, You love, 

3. He loves. They love. 

Present Perfect Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I have loved, We have loved, 

2. Thou hast loved, You have loved, 

3. He has loved. They have loved. 

Past Tense. 

Singular, Plural. 

1. I loved, We loved, 

2. Thou lovedst. You loved, 

3. He loved. They loved. 

9-ive the synopsis. Conjugate the verb ''To Love/* active — -paasiTe. 



LESSON SIXTY-FIRST. 109 



Past Perfect Tense. 



Singular, Plural, 

1. I had loved, We had loved, 

2. Thou hadst loved, You had loved, 

3. He had loved. They had loved. 

Future Tense. 

Singular, Plural, 

1. I shall or will love, We shall or will love, 

2. Thou shalt or wilt love, You shall or will love, 

3. He shall or will love. They shall or will love. 

Future Perfect Tense. 

Singular. Plural, 

1. I shall or will have loved, We shall or will have loved, 

2. Thou shalt or wilt have loved. You shall or will have loved, 

3. He shall or will have loved. They shall or will have lov^-d 

potential mode. 
Present Tense. 

Singular, Plural, 

1. I may love, We may love, 

2. Thou mayst love, You may love, 

3. He may love. They may love. 

Present Perfect Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I may have loved, We may have loved, 

2. Thou mayst have loved, You may have loved, 

3. He may have loved. They may have loved. 

Past Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I might love, We might love, 

2. Thou mightst love, You might love, 

3. He might love. They might love. 



110 GREENERS INTRODUCTION. 

Past Perfect Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I might have loved, We might have loved, 

2. Thou mightst have loved, You might have loved, 
8. He might have loved. They might have loved. 



SUBJUNCTIVE MODE. {Regular form.) 
Present Tense. 

Sing ular. Plural, 

1. If I love. If we love, 

2. If thou lovest, If you love, 
8. If he loves. If they love. 



Present Perfect Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. If I have loved. If we have loved, 

2. If thou hast loved, If you have loved, 

3. If he has loved. If they have loved. 

Past Tense. 

Singular. Plural, 

1. If I loved, If we loved, 

2. If thou lovedst, If you loved, 
8. If he loved. If they loved. 

Past Perfect Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. If I had loved. If we had loved, 

2. If thou hadst loved. If you had loved, 

3. If he had loved. If they had loved. 

Future Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. If I shall or will love, If we shall or will love, 

2. If thou shalt or wilt love, If you shall or will love, 

3. If he shall or will love. If they shall or will love. 



LESSON SIXTY-FIRST. Ill 

FuTunE Peefect Tense. 

Singu la r. . Plu ra I, 

1. If I sliall or will have loved, If we shall or will have loved, 

2. If thou shalt or wilt have loved, If you shall or will have loved, 
B If he shall or will have loved. If they shall or will have loved. 

SUBJUNCTIVE MODE. {Subjunctive form?j 
Present Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. If I love, If we love, 

2. If thou love. If yoj love, 

3. If he love. If they love. 

IMPERATIVE MODE. 

Singular. Plural. 

Love, or Love thou. Love, or Love you. 

INFINITIVE MODE. 

Present. To love. Perfect. To have loved. 

PARTICIPLES. 

Present. Loving. Past. Loved. 

Perfect. Having loved. 



PASSIVE VOICE. 

indicative mode. 

Present Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I am loved. We are loved, 

^ Thou art loved. You are loved, 

8. He is loved. They are loved. 

Present Perfect Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I have been loved, We have been loved, 

2. Thou hast been loved, You have been loved, 

3. He has been loved. They have been loved. 



112 Greene's introduction. 

Past Tense. 

Si7tgular. Plural, 

1. I was loved, We were loved, 

2. Thou wast loved, You were loved, 

3. He was loved. They were loved. 

Past Perfect Tense. 

Singular, Plural, 

1. I had been loved, We had been loved, 

2. Thou hadst been loved, You had been loved, 

3. He had been loved. They had been loved. 

Future Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I shall or will be loved, We shall or will be loved, 

2. Thou shalt or wilt be loved. You shall or will be loved, 

3. He shall or will be loved. They shall or will be loved. 

Future Perfect Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I shall or will have been loved. We shall or will have been 

loved, 

2. Thou shalt or wilt have been You shall or will have been 

loved, loved, 

3. He shall or will have been They shall or will have been 

loved. loved. 



POTENTIAL MODE. 
Present Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I may be loved, We may be loved, 

2. Thou mayst be loved. You may be loved, 

3. He may be loved. They may be loved. 

Present Perfect Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I may have been loved, We may have been loved^ 

2. Thou mayst have been loved. You may have been loved, 

3. He may have been loved. They may have been loved. 



LESSON SIXTY-FIRST. 113 

Past Tense. 

Singular. Plural, 

1. I might be loved, We might be loved, 

2. Thou mightst be loved. You might be loved, 

3. He might be loved. They might be loved. 

Past Perfect Tense. 

Singular, Plural. 

1. I might have been loved, We might have been loved, 

2. Thou mightst have been loved, You might have been loved, 
^„ He might have been loved. They might have been loved. 



subjunctive mode. {Regular form.) 
Present Tense. 

Singular. PluraU 

1. If I am loved. If we are loved, 

2. If thou art loved, If you are loved, 

3. If he is loved. If they are loved. 

Present Perfect Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. If I have been loved, If we have been loved, 

2. If thou hast been loved If you have been loved, 

3. If he has been loved. If they have been loved. 

Past Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. If I was loved, If we were loved, 

2. If thou wast loved, If you were loved, 
8, If he were loved. If they were loved. 

Past Perfect Tense. 

Singular. Plural, 

1. If I had been loved, If we had been loved, 

2. If thou hadst been loved. If you had been loved, 

3. If he had been loved, If they had been loved. 

8 



11'4 Greene's iktroduction. 

Future Tense. 

Singular. Plural, 

1. If I shall or will be loved, If we shall or will be loved, 

2. If thou shalt or wilt be loved, If you shall or will be loved. 

3. If he shall or will be loved. If they shall or will be loved. 

Future Perfect Tense. 

Singular. Plural, 

1. If I shall or will have been If we shall or will have beeq 

loved, loved, 

2. If thou shalt or wilt have been If you shall or will have been 

loved, loved, 

8. If he shall or will have been If they shall or will have been 
loved. loved. 

SUBJUNCTIVE MODE. [Subjunctive form,) 
Present Tense. 

Singular. PhiraL 

1. If I be loved. If we be loved, 

2. If thou be loved. If you be loved, 

3. If he be lo^ed. If they be loved. 

Past Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. If I w^ere loved, If we were loved, 

2. If thou wert loved, If you were loved, 

3. If he were loved. If they were loved. 



IMPERATIVE MODE. 

Singular. Plural, 

Be loved, or Be thou loved. Be loved, or Be you loved. 

INFINITIVE MODE. 
Present. To be loved. Perfect. To have been loved. 

PARTICIPLES. 

Present. Being loved. Past (Passive). Loved. 

Perfect. Having been loved. 



LESSON SIXTY-SECOND, 115 

311. Exercise. 

1. Tell the mode, tense, voice, number, and person of the 
following verb : — 

She has loved. I might love. We had loved. We 
had been loved. He may have loved. If I be loved. I 
love. He will love. He shall have loved. I have loved. 
They shall have loved. She is loved. We may be loved. 
You might have been loved. If I love. If they love. 
They may love. We will love. I had loved. Thou hast 
loved. Thou wilt have loved. Thou art loved. He was 
loved. She will have been loved. 

2. Write or repeat a full conjugation of the following 
verbs : — 

Relieve, betray, defy, persuade, resolve, determine. 

3. Conjugate two of the above verbs interrogatively, 
two of them negatively, and two of them interrogatively 
and negatively. Thus: — 

Do I love? &c. I do not love, &c. Do I not love? &c. 

4. Conjugate one of them in the Common Style. 

LESSON LXII. 

312. 1. An irregular verb is one which 
does not form its past tense and past participle 
by adding ed to the present tense. 

Ex. — See, saw, seen; write, wrote, written. 

The irregular verbs were much more numerous in the early history 
of the language than at present. The tendency in modern English is 
constantly to diminish the number of irregular formations: hence the 
numerous obsolete forms. Some of the present forms are derived from 
other verbs. Went comes from wend, and not from r/o. Philologists call 
the irregular the strong, and the regular the weaJc inflection. 

2. The following list contains the principal parts of the 
irregular verbs. Those verbs which are marked r. have 



116 



GREENERS INTEODUCTION. 



also the regular forms. Those which are italicized aro 
either obsolete or are becoming so, and should not be com- 
mitted to memory. When the R is dark-faced^ the regular 
form is preferred, and should be repeated first ; r, in italica 
means regular, but seldom used. 



Present, 


Past 


Past Participle, 


Abide, 


Abode, 


Abode. 


Arise, 


Arose, 


Arisen. 


Awake, 


Awoke, r. 


Awaked. 


Be or am, 


Was, 


Been. 


Bear {to bring forth), 


Bore, bare. 


Born. 


Bear {to car^y), 


Bore, bare, 


Borne. 


Beat, 


Beat, 


Beaten, beat. 


Begin, 


Began, 


Begun. 


Belay, 


Belaid, R. 


Belaid, R. 


Bend, 


Bent, r. 


Bent, r. 


Bet, 


Bet, R. 


Bet, R. 


Bereave, 


Bereft, 


Bereft, r. 


Beseech, 


Besought, 


Besought. 


Bid, 


Bid, bade. 


Bidden, bid. 


Bind, Ufi' 


Bound, 


Bound. 


Bite, 


Bit, 


Bitten, bit. 


Bleed, 


Bled, 


Bled. 


Blend, 


Blent, R. 


Blent, R. 


Bless, 


Blest, R. 


Blest, R. 


Blow, 


Blew, 


Blown. 


Break, 


Broke, brake^ 


Broken, broke. 


Breed, 


Bred, 


Bred. 


Bring, 


Brought, 


Brought. 


Build, Be- 


Built, r. 


Built, r. 


Burn, 


Burnt, R. 


Burnt, R, 


Burst, 


Burst, 


Burst. 


Buy, 


Bought, 


Bought. 


Cast, 


Cast, 


Cast. 


Catch, 


Caught, r. 


Caught, r. 


Chide, 


Chid, 


Chidden, chid 


Choose, 


Chose, 


Chosen. 


Cleave {to adhere) , 


Cleaved, clave. 


Cleaved. 



LESSON SIXTY-SECOND. 



117 



Prefient. 


Pcwt. 


Fast Participle. 


Cleave (to split) ^ 


Clove, cleft, clave. 


Cleft, cloven, r. 


'Cling, 




Clung, 


Clung. 


Clot.ie, 




Clad, E. 


Clad, R. 


Come, B( 


'") 


Came, 


Come. 


Cost, 




Cost, 


Cost. 


Creep, 




Crept, 


Crept. 


Crow, 




Crew, R. 


Crowed. 


Cut, 




Cut, 


Cut. 


Dare [to venture) ^ 


Durst, R. 


Dared. 


Dare (to ( 


challenge), R, 


. Dared, 


Dared. 


Deal, 




Dealt, r. 


Dealt, r. 


Dig, 




Dug, r. 


Dug, r. 


Do, Ms-, 


Un-, Out-, 


Did, 


Done. 


Draw, 




Drew, 


Drawn. 


Dream, 




Dreamt, R. 


Dreamt, R. 


Dress, 




Drest, R. 


Drest, R. 


Drink, 




Drank, 


Drunk, drank 


Drive, 




Drove, 


Driven. 


Dwell, 




Dwelt, r. 


Dwelt, r. 


Eat, 




Ate, eat, 


Eaten, or eat. 


Fall, Be-, 




Fell, 


Fallen. 


Feed, 




Fed, 


Fed. 


Feel, 




Felt, 


Felt. 


Fight, 




Fought, 


Fougnt. 


Find, 




Found, 


Found. 


Flee, 




Fled, 


Fled. 


Fling, 




Flung, 


Flung. 


Fly, 




Flew, 


Flown. 


Forbear, 




Forbore, 


Forborne. 


Forget, 




Forgot, 


Forgotten, forgot 


Forsake, 




Forsook, 


Forsaken. 


Freeze, 




Froze, 


Frozen. 


Freight, 




Freighted, 


Fraught, R. 


Get, Be-, 


For-, 


Got, 


Got, gotten. 


Gild, 




Gilt, R. 


Gilt, R. 


Gird, Be,- 


•En-, 


Girt, R. 


Girt, R. 


Give, For 


-, Mis-, 


Gave, 


Given. 


Go, 




Went, 


Gone. 



118 



GEEEJfE S INTEODUCTION. 



Present. 


Past. 


Past Participle, 


Grave, En-, 


Graved, 


Graven, R. 


Grind, 


Ground, 


Ground. 


Grow, 


Grew, 


Grown. 


Hang [to take life, E.) 


, Hung, 


Hung. 


Have, 


Had, 


Had. 


Hear, 


Heard, 


Heard. 


Heave, 


Hove, R. 


Hoven, R. 


Hew, 


Hewed, 


Hewn, R. 


Hide, 


Hid, 


Hidden, hid. 


Hit, 


Hit, 


Hit. 


Hold, Be-, With-, 


Held, 


Held, holden. 


Hurt, 


Hurt, 


Hurt. 


Keep, 


Kept, 


Kept. 


Kneel, 


Knelt, r. 


Knelt, r. 


Knit, 


Knit, r. 


Knit, r. 


Know, 


Knew, 


Known. 


Lade, to load [tod'p,^ 


:.), Laded, 


Laden, R. 


Lay, 


Laid, 


Laid. 


Lead, 3Iis-, 


Led, 


Led. 


Leap, 


Leapt, R. 


Leapt, R. 


Learn, 


Learnt, R. 


Learnt, R. 


Leave, 


Left, 


Left. 


Lend, 


Lent, 


Lent. 


Let, 


Let, 


Let. 


Lie [to recline), 


Lay, 


Lain. 


Lie ( to speak falsely ) , 


R. Lied, 


Lied. 


Light, 


Lit, R. 


Lit, R. 


Lose, 


Lost, 


Lost. 


Make, 


Made, 


Made. 


Mean, 


Meant, 


Meant. 


Meet, 


Met, 


Met. 


Mow, 


Mow^ed, 


Mown, R. 


Pass, 


Past, R. 


Past, R. 


Pay, Re-, 


Paid, 


Paid. 


Pen [to enclose), 


Pent, R. 


Pent, R. 


Prove, 


Proved, 


Proven, R. 


Put, 


Put, 


Put. 


Quit, 


Quit, r. 


Quit, r. 



LESSON SIXTY-SECOND. 



119 



Present. 


Past. 


Past Participle. 


Rap, 


Rapt, B. 


Rapt, E. 


Read, 


Read, 


Read. 


Rend, 


Rent, 


Rent. 


Rid, 


Rid, 


Rid. 


.Ride, 


Rode, rid, 


Ridden, nrf. 


Ring, 


Rang, rung, . 


Rung. 


Rise, A'^ 


Rose, 


Risen, 


Rive, 


Rived, 


Riven, E. 


Run, 


Ran, run^ 


Run. 


Saw, 


Sawed, 


Sawn, R. 


Say, 


Said, 


Said. 


See, 


Saw, 


Seen. 


Seek, 


Sought, 


Sought. 


Seethe, 


Sod, R. 


Sodden, E. 


Sell, 


Sold, 


5old. 


Send, 


Sent, 


SenL 


Set, Be-, 


Set, 


Set. 


Shake, 


Shook, 


Shaken. 


Shape. Mis-, 


Shaped, 


Shapen, K. 


Shave, 


Shaved, 


Shaven, E. 


Shear, 


Sheared, {shore, obs.] 


1 Shorn, R. 


Shed, 


Shed, 


Shed. 


Shine 


Shone, E. 


Shone, R. 


Shoe, 


Shod, 


Shod. 


Shoot, 


Shot, 


Shot. 


Show^ 


Showed, 


Shown, R. 


Shred, 


Shred, 


Shred, [shrunken, 


Shrink, 


Shrunk, shrank, 


Shrunk or 


Shut, 


Shut, 


Shut. 


Sing, 


Sang, sung, 


Sung. 


Sink, 


Sunk, sanlc^ 


Sunk. 


Sit, 


Sat, 


Sat. 


Slay, 


Slew, 


Slain. 


Sleep, 


Slept, 


Slept. 


Slide, 


Slid, 


Slidden, sliiL 


Sling, 


Slung, slang, 


Slung. 


Slink 


Slunk, 


Slunk. 


BUt, 


Blit, n 


mt,r. 



120 



GEEENE S INTRODUCTION. 



Present. 


Past, 


Past Participle, 


Smell, 


Smelt, R. 


Smelt, R. 


Smite, 


Smote, 


Smitten, smit. 


Sow {to scatter), 


Sowed, 


Sown, R. 


Speak, Be-, 


Spoke, spake^ 


Spoken, 


Speed, 


Sped, r. 


Sped, r. 


Spell, 


Spelt, R. 


Spelt, R. 


Sjpend, MlS'^ 


Spent, 


Spent. 


Spill, 


Spilt, R. 


Spilt, R. 


Spin, 


Spun, span, 


Spun. 


Spit, Be-, 


Spit, spat, 


Spit. 


Split, 


Split, r. 


Split, r. 


Spoil, 


Spoilt, R. 


Spoilt, R. 


Spread, Be-, 


Spread, 


Spread. 


Spring, 


Sprang, sprung, 


Sprung. 


Stand, With'y &c., 


Stood, 


Stood. 


Stave, 


Stove, R, 


Stove, R. 


Stay, 


Staid, lu 


Staid, R. 


Steal, 


Stole, 


Stolen. 


Stick, 


Stuck, 


Stuck. 


Sting, 


Stung, 


Stung. 


Stride, 


Strode, strid, 


Stridden, strid. 


Strike, 


Struck, 


Struck, stricken. 


String, 


Strung, 


Strung. 


Strive, 


Strove, 


Striven. 


Strow, or Strew, Be-, 


Strowed or strewed, 


Strown, strewn. 


Swear, 


Swore, sware, 


Sworn. 


Sweat, 


Sweat, R. 


Sw^eat, R. 


Sweep, 


Swept, 


Swept. 


Swell, 


Swelled, 


Swollen, R. 


Swim, 


Swam, swum, 


Swum. 


Swing, 


Swung, 


Sw^ung. 


lake. Be-, &c. 


Took, 


Taken. 


Teach, Mis-, Be-, 


Taught, 


Taught. 


Tear, 


Tore, tare, 


Torn. 


Tell, 


Told, 


Told. 


Think, Be-, 


Thought, 


Thought 


Thrive, 


Throve, R. 


Thriven, R 


Throw, 


Threw, 


Thrown, 



LESSON SIXTY-SECOND. 



121 



Present, 


Past. 


Past Participle. 


Thrust, 


Thrust, 


Thrust. 


Tread, 


Trod, 


Trodden, trod. 


Wake, 


Woke, R. 


Woke, R. 


Wax, 


Waxed, 


Waxen, R. 


Wear, 


Wore, 


Worn. 


Weave, 


Wove, 


Woven. 


Wed, 


Wed, R. 


Wed, R. 


Weep, 


Wept, 


Wept. 


Wet, 


Wet, R. 


Wet, R. 


Whet, 


Whet, E. 


Whet, R. 


Win, 


Won, 


Won. 


Wind, 


Wound, R. 


Wound. 


Work, 


Wrought, R. 


Wrought, R. 


Wring, 


Wrung, 


Wrung. 


Write, 


Wrote, 


Written. 



Note. — Many of the words in the list are irregular to the eye, not to 
the ear. The preference is one of orthography. Thus, rapt and rajyped 
are pronounced alike; so, also, dresty dressed, hlest^ blessed, and others. 
Sometimes the difference in sound is that of / and its correlative d, — 
dwelt, dwelled, spelt, spelled. Besides the words in the list, there are a 
few forms which are seldom found except in the poets or in the older 
usages of the language. The following very rarely have a regular past 
and past participle: — Grind, lay, pay, shake, slide, sweep, string, strive, 
wind, tvring. 

Betide has (obs.) hetid ; hide has (obs.) hided; creep has (obs.) crope ; 
curse has sometimes curst ; dive has (obs.) dove, diven; heat has (collo- 
quial) heat; plead has (improperly) plead; reave (itself little used) has 
reft, R. ; shear has (obs.) shore; show has (obs.) shew, shewn; strow, strew, 
or (obs.) straw, has strowed, streived, (obs.) strawed, strawn, strewn ; but it 
may now be regarded as a regular: verb, — strew, strewed, strewed, 

313. MODEL FOR PARSING A YERB. 

Anna had gone to walk. 
Had gone (1) is a verb ; a word which expresses being, ac- 
tion, or state. . 



Give the form for parsing a verb. Parse " Had gone," according to 
the model ; also, " To walk." 



J.22 Greene's introduction. 

(2) irregular; it does not form its past tense and 

past participle by adding ed, 

(3) go, went, gone. 

(4) intransitive ; it does not require an object to 

complete its meaning. 

(5) common form ; it represents an act indefi- 

nitely, &c. 

(6) indicative mode; it asserts a thing as actual. 

(7) past perfect tense ; it represents a past event 

completed in past time, formed by prefix- 
ing had to the past participle gone, 

(8) I had gone, thou hadst gone, he had gone, 

we had gone, you had gone, they had gone. 

(9) third person^ singular numb ery because J ?iria is. 
(10) Rule IV. — The verb must agree with its 

subject in number and person. 
To toack is a •regular, intransitive verb, (walk, walked, 
walkeaj, in the infinitive, present, and depends on had 
gone. Rule XVI. 

1. Parse the verbs in the following examples: — 
Blessed are the peace-makers. 
Homage should be paid to the Most High. 
The Magna Charta was granted to the English by King 
John. 

The Mexicans were defeated by the Americans at Buena 
Vista. 

If you wish, I will show you the Royal Oak where King 
Charles hid himself. 

Cromwell's name will be long remembered. 

Should you like to take a ride ? 

The village bells are ringing merrily. 

Lives of great men all remind us 

We can make our lives sublime, 
And, departing, leave behind us 
Footprints in the sands of Time. 



LESSON SIXTY-THIRD. 123 

LESSON LXIII. 

ADVERBS. 

314. An adverb is a word used to modify the 
Meaning of a verb; an adjective^ a participle, or 
another adverb. 

Examples. 

The stage started early. 
He has undertaken a very difficult task. 
The sun, shining brightly, awoke me. 
How wildly the old man talked ! 

Instead of a single word, a phrase or proposition may be added to a 
verb, adjective, or adverb, to express an adverbial ideaj as, "Speak dis- 
tinctly — icith distinctness — so that you may be understood.'* 

315. Adverbs may be divided into four general 
classes^ — adverbs of place^ of time, of cause, 
of manner. 

Adverbs of place answer the questions Where f 
Whither f Whence f as, here, there, above, below, yonder, 
somewhere, noivhere, back, upwards, downwards, &c. &c. 

Adverbs of time answer the questions Whenf How 
long f How often f as, then, yesterday, always, ever, con- 
Hnually, often, frequently, &c. 

Adverbs of cause answer the questions Why^ Where- 
fore f as, why, wherefore, therefore, then. 

Adverbs of manner answer the questions Howf as, 
elegantly, faithfully, fairly, &c. 



What is an adverb ? How may an adverbial idea be expressed ? How 
»re adverbs divided? What questions do adverbs of place answer? Ad- 
rerbs of time ? Adverbs of cause ? Of manner ? 



124 GREENERS INTRODUCTION. 

With these last may be classed those which answer the 
question Howf in respect to quantity or quality; as, Hon 
much ? How good ? such as, too^ very, greatly, chiefly, &c. 

Modal adverbs^ qualify the assertion, and not, like 
other adverbs, that which is asserted. They are yea, yes, 
verily, truly, surely, undoubtedly, doubtless, forsooth, cer- 
tainly, no, nay, not, possibly, probably, perhaps, peradven- 
lure, perchance. 

Conjunctive adverbs are those which give to a de- 
pendent clause an adverbial relation, and connect it with 
the verb, adjective, or adverb which it modifies ; as, " I 
shall meet my friend when the boat arrives.'^ 

COMPARISON OF ADVERBS. 

316. Many adverbs^ like adjectiveS;, admit of 
comparison. 

Ex. — Soon, sooner, soonest; bravely, more bravely, most 
bravely. 

The following adverbs are compared irregularly : — 

Positive. Comparative, Superlative, 

111 or badly, ^yorse, Worst. 

Little, Less, Least. 

Far, Farther, Farthest. 

Much, More, Most. 

Well, Better, " Best. 

31 7, MODEL. 

The stream flows most rapidly in the spring. 

Rapidly (1) is an adverb of manner. Why? 

What are classed with adverbs of manner? What are modal adverb*? r 
!^hat are conjunctive adverbs ? Are adverbs compared ? Compare lYr, 
'ittle,far, much, well. Parse "most rapidly," according to the model. 



LESSON SIXTY-FOUFvTH. 12S 

(2) Compared (rapidly, raore rapidly, most ra- 

pidly); superlative degree. 

(3) It limits flows, Eule IX. — "Adverbs are 

used to limit verbs, participles, adjectives, 
and other adverbs.'' 

I shall go before you arrive. 
Before is a conjunctive adverb of time, and connects 
the clause ''before you arrive^^ with the verb shall go. 
Rule XV. 

Parse the following adverbs : — 

The Athenians were alw^ays seeking some new thing. 

Man never loses the sentiment of his true good. 

How novel, how grand the spectacle ! 

There, then, she had found a grave. 

My mother died when I was very young. 

Go, where glory waits thee. 

Kate wept bitterly. 

Where shall we find rest ? 

Isabella gladly welcomed the early violet. 

Henry rises very early. 

The prospect is extremely beautiful. 

LESSON LXIV. 

prepositions. 

318. A preposition is a word used to show 
the relation of a noun or pronoun to some other 
word. 

Ex. — He sailed upon the ocean m a ship. 

The preposition always shows a relation between two terms, an anfe-. 
tedent and a subsequenf. The subsequent term is called the object of the 

Parse " before." What is a preposition ? What is the object of a pre* 
position ? 



126 



geeene's introduction. 



preposition. The preposition and object united form a dependent element 
of the sentence, having the antecedent term as its principal. When the 
dependent element is joined to a noun, it is of the nature of an adjective; 
as, The rays of the sun — Sola)- rays. When joined to a verb, adjective, or 
adverb, the dependent phrase is usually of the nature of an adverb ; as. 
The case was conducted icith skill — skilfully. 



319. The following 


is a list of the principa 


prepositions in use : — 






aboard, 


before. 


for. 


through. 


about. 


behind. 


from. 


throughout, 


above. 


below. 


in, into, 


till. 


according to. 


beneath, 


'mid. 


to. 


across. 


beside, or 


'midst, 


touching, 


after. 


besides. 


notwithstanding 


, toward, or 


against, 


between. 


of, 


towards, 


along. 


betwixt. 


off. 


under. 


amid, or 


beyond. 


on. 


underneath. 


amidst, 


by, 


out of, 


until, 


among, or 


concerning, 


over, 


unto, 


amongst. 


down. 


past, 


up. 


around. 


during, 


regarding. 


upon, 


at, 


ere. 


respecting. 


with. 


athwart. 


except. 


round. 


within. 


bating. 


excepting. 


since, 


without. 



320. MODEL. 

He has gone to New York. 
To (1) is Si preposition ; it is used to show the relation of a 
noun or pronoun to some other word. 
(2) It shows the relation between the noun New York 
and the verb has gone. 



What do the preposition and its object form? What do they express 
when joined to a noun? When joined to a verb, adjective, or adverb? 
Give the list of prepositions. 



LESSON SIXTY-FIFTH. 127 

(3) KuLE XIII. — A preposition is used to show the re 
lation 01 its object to the word on which the latter 
depends. 
I arse the following prepositions : — 

Cornelia heard the birds sing in the morning. 

The winds will come from the distant south. 

I shall be queen of the May. 

The hills are covered with a carpet of green. 

We shall seek the early fruits in the sunny valley. 

The love of money is the root of all .evil. 

From shore to shore it was free. 

On the shore stands a lovely cottage. 

LESSON LXV. 

CONJUNCTIONS. 

321. A conjunction is a word used to con- 
nect sentences^ or the parts of sentences. 

Ex. — The horse fell over the precipice, hut th© rider 
escaped. The horse and rider fell over the precipice. 

A pure conjunction forms no part of the material or substance of the 
sentence. Its office is simply to unite the materials into a single struc- 
ture. A mixed conjunction, or connective, forms a part of the sentence, 
and at the same time joins the parts together j as, "This is the pencil 
which (both object and connective) I lost." 

322. All connectives (whether pure conjunc- 
tions or conjunctive words) are divided into two 
classes^ coordinate or snbordinate. 

323. Coordinate connectives join similar ele« 
ments. 

Ex. — John and James were disciples. 

What is a coniunction ? How are they divided ? What do coordinate 
•onnectives join { 



128 GREENERS INTRODUCTION, 

Here John and James are similar in construction, and 
have a common relation to the predicate. 

324. Subordinate connectives are those 
which join dissimilar elements. 

Ex. — I shall go ivhen the stage arrives. 

Here when joins the clause when the stage arrives^ a de- 
pendent expression, to its principal, the verb shall go. It 
forms a part of the clause which it connects. 

325. Coordinate connectives are always 
conjunctions, and may be divided into three 
classes : — 

1. CopulatiTe ; as, and, also, even. 

2. AdversatiTe; as, but, yet, still, however. 

3. AlternatiTe ; as, or, nor, either, neither, 

326. Subordinate connectives are also divided 
into three classes : — 

1. Those which connect substantive clauses ; as, that, 
that not. 

2. Those which connect adjective clauses ; as, who, © 
which, what, that 

3. Those which connect adverbial clauses ; as — 
Place. — Where, whence, whither, wherever, whithersoever. 
Time. — When, while, before, ere, until, till, whenever, 

whensoever. 

Cause. — For, because, as, since, lest, that. 
Manner. — Sow, so as, so that. 

327. MODEL. 

Socrates and Plato were distinguished philosophers. 

What do subordinate connectives join? How are coordinate connect- 
ives divided? How are subordinate connectiyes divided? Give ex- 
amples of each kind. 



LESSON SIXTY-FIFTH. 129 

And (1) is a conjunction; it is used to connect isentences, 
or the parts of a sentence. 

(2) coordinate; it connects similar elements, 

(3) It connects Socrates and Plato, 

(4) Rule XI. — Coordinate conjunctions are used to 

join similar elements. 

Either Lucia or Julia will come. 

Either is a coordinate conjunction (alternative), used as 
correlative of or. 

Or is a coordinate conjunction (alternative), and, with 
its correlative either, connects Lucia and Julia, — Rule XI. 

1. Parse the following conjunctions : — 
Clouds and darkness are round about him. 

I am debtor both to the Greeks and to the barbarians. 
Mordaunt neither spoke nor moved after his fall. 
My punishment is greater than I can bear. 
Thou art, and wert, and shalt be a great, life-giving, 
life-sustaining potentate. 

Oh ! that those lips had language. 
I hope that Edward will not be rash. 

2. Write appropriate connectives in place of the dashes 
in the following : — 

you have nothing to say, say nothing. 

the cat is away, the mice will play. 

I shall love the sea, it is his grave. 

Samuel his brother came to town. 

3. Let the learner write examples containing the dif- 
ferent parts of speech, in any of their uses. 



130 Greene's introduction. 

LESSON LXVI. 

INTERJECTIONS. 

328. An interjection is a word used to ex- 
press some strong or sudden emotion of the mind. 

Ex. — Alas ! I have chid away my friend. 

329. The principal interjections are — 

Hey, hurrah, huzza, aha, hah, ah, ho, lo, hallo, fie, 
pshaw, tush, alas, woe, alack, O, hist, hush, mum, &c. 

830. MODEL. 

O lightly, lightly tread. 
(1) is an interjection; it expresses some strong or sudden 
emotion of the mind. 

(2) It has no grammatical relation to any other word. 

(3) Rule X. — The nominative case independent, and 

the interjection, have no grammatical relation to 
the other parts of the sentence. 



LESSON SIXTY-SEVENTH. 131 



SYNTAX. 



LESSON LXVII. 

SENTENCES. 

331. Syntax treats of the construction of sen- 
tences. 

332. A sentence is a thought expressed in 
words. 

Example. 
Boy learned. 

Here a tlioiig^lit is expressed, because something is declared of the 
boy: but it is indefinite. What boy? To answer this question, we must 
give him a descriptive name ; that is, we must so describe him as to distin- 
guish him from all other boys (16). To show that some particular boy 
is meant, we join the. Thus : — 

The boy. 

To distinguish him from all largs boys, we join little. Thus : — 

The little boy. 

To distinguish him from negligent and unfaithful boys, we add a de- 
»€riptive exi^ression. Thus : — 

The little boy who never neglected his duty. 

Thus we have the specific name of this particular boy. But he learn4d 
w\at f And we have — 

Learned his lessons. 

To show how he learned them, we have — 

Learned his lessons carefully. 

Of what does Syntax treat? What is a sentence? 



132 Greene's introduction. 

To show xchen he did it, we have — 

Learned his lessons carefully during the time assigned 
for study. 

Thus, we have the definite name ending at duty, and the definite state- 
ment ending at study — 

The-little-boy-who never neglected his duty — learned- 
his lessons-carefully-during the time assigned for study. 

In saying this, we are supposed to know the boy, and to know what he 
did. If we had not known the boy, we might have inquired — 

"Who learned his lessons, &c. 

Or, if a boy were idle, we might command him thus : — 

Learn your lessons, &c. 

Or, if he had learned his lessons very soon, we might have expressed 
surprise by exclaiming thus: — 

Have you learned your lessons so soon ! 

Hem. — The teacher will find that any labor bestowed at this point in 
developing definite sentences from such indefinite ones as, man came, dog 
barked, thief ran, hero fought, &c., will be abundantly rewarded, in giv- 
ing the pupil a clear idea of the parts of a sentence and their various uses. 
The aid of the living teacher is needed here. Make use of smy familiar 
subject. Let the examples be both oral and written. 

333. All sentences are either declarative, 
interrogative, imperative, or exclama- 
tory. 

334. A declarative sentence is one which 
declares something. 

Ex. — The boy came. 

Let the pupil compare this with "Did the boy come?'* "Come, boy/' 

335. An interrogative sentence is one which 
asks a question. 

Ex. — Who broke my slate? 

Compare this with "He broke my slate;" "Don't break my slate." 

Name the four different kinds of sentences. AVhat is a declarative 
sentence ? An interrogative ? 



LESSON SIXTY-EIGHTH. 133 

336. An imperative sentence is one which 
expresses a command. 

Ex.— Put up your books. 

Compare this with '' AVhere are your books ?" ^^ Your books are on the 
floor.'^ 

337. An exelamattory sentence is one which 
contains an exclamation. 

Ex. — How art thou fallen ! How cold it is ! 

338. Exercise. 

The teacher will find it an excellent plan to read short sentences to 
the class, requiring them to distinguish the different kinds by the ear. 

1. Point out the different kinds of sentences in these 
examples, and construct or select others like them : — 

The heat is oppressive. 
How vivid is the lightning ! 
Believe ye that I can do this ? 
Children, obey your parents. 

Shall the Turk still pollute the soil sanctified by the 
brightest genius ? 

2. Write five sentences of each kind, and change them 
from one kind to another. 

LESSON LXVIII. 

PROPOSITIONS. 

339. Every sentence must contain at least one 
prineipal proposition. 

Ex. — The ice melts. Can he read ? Bring me a pencil. 
O, how it rains ! I shall remain, if he comes. 

What is an imperative sentence? An exclamatory? What must every 
Bentence contain ? 



134 Greene's introduction. 

Such a proposition as, *^ If he comes," is not a sentence, but only ^ 
part or element of a sentence. While every sentence must contain at least 
one independent or principal proposition, it uiui/ contain any number of 
others, either principal or subordinate. When propositions are thus com. 
bined, they are called clauses. A clause, therefore, is always a proposition 
but a proposition is not always a clause; it is sometimes an entire sentence, 

340. A proposition is the combination of a 

subject and a predicate. 

Ex. — The ocean — roars. WJio — wrote it ? Bun — [thou]. 
How fresh — the breeze — is ! 

341. The subject represents that of which 

something is said or affirmed. 

Ex. — The lilies fade. What do you v/ant ? Give \jjou\ 
me your name. What a noise he makes ! 

342. The predicate represents that which is 

said or affirmed of the subject. 

Ex. — The waves dash. What have you found f Feed 
my sheep. What ! have you lost that also ! 

The predicate is sometimes that which is denied of the subject; as, 
^' The door is not shut." But to deny is only to affirm a negative. In 
general, affirm is here used to apply to every kind of proposition, inter- 
rogative, imperative, and exclamatory, as well as declarative. 

343. The subject usually represents some 
objeet^ and the predicate some attribute of 

that object. 

Attribute means that which belongs to or pertains to an object, express 
ing some action, quality, class, state, or condition of it. Since in every 
proposition some one of these must be affirmed, that which is affirmed 
is called the attribute of the proposition ; and the verb which affirms it 
thereby connecting it with the subject, is called the copula. When aa 

"What is said of clauses? What is a proposition ? What is the sub- 
ject? What is the predicate? In what sense is the word "affirm" here 
used? What do the subject and predicate usually represent? 



LESSON SIXTY-EIGHTH. 135 

attribute is aissiiinecl of the subject, that is, used without assertion, as 
if taken for granted, it is the attributive or adjective element of the propo- 
sition. 

Ex. — The apple is sweet The wind blows, 

344. Attributes are — 

1. Those which denote the class of objects ; as, beast, 
bird, tree. The lion is a beast. The eagle is a bird. 

2. Those which denote the qualities of objects, as, good, 
old, sweet. The fruit is good. The fence is old. 

3. Those which denote the actions of objects ; as, run, 
crawl, fly. Boys run. Serpents craivl, 

4. Those which denote some state, condition, or circum- 
stance of an object ; as, first, over, in health. He is first. 
The rain is over. They are in health, 

345. An attribute may be represented as joined 
to an object in two ways : — 

1. It may be assumed of it; a.':, blue sky, rough sea, 
poisonous reptiles. 

2. It may be predicated of it ; as, The sky is blue ; 
the sea is rough ; reptiles are poisonous. 

The teacher will easily fix this distinction in the mind of the pupil by 
taking any familiar thing, as a globe, and calling upon him to name any 
attributes of it, as round, smooth, rough, large, small, &Q., requiring him 
at the same time to affirm each ; thus : The globe is round, — the globe is 
smooth, — the globe is large, Ac; and then to assume each; thus: The 
round globe, the smooth globe, &g. This exercise, vai'ied and repeated^ 
will make this fundamental idea entirely familiar. 

346. When an attribute is assumed of an ob= 
ject, it is said to modify or limit it (18). 

347. When an attribute is predicated of an 
object, the words form a proposition. 

How many kinds of attributes are there? In how many ways may an 
attribute be joined to an object? When the attribute is predicated, what 
U formed? What is said when the attribute is assumed? 



136 GREENERS INTRODUCTION. 

The predicate consists of two parts, — some form of the verb "to be/ 
called the copula, and the attribute; as, "The fruit is rijjeJ' These twt 
parts may be combined in one word; the predicate is then always a verb, 
which is itself equivalent to the copula and attribute j as, ''The winda 
roar" == are roaring. So that the predicate is either a verb, or it contains 
a verb. See Lesson IX. 



348. Exercise. 

1. Name any objects which contain these qualities : — 
Yellow, smooth, cold, pure, clear, wild, heavy. 
Assume and then predicate them. Tell which ex- 
amples form propositions, and which contain merely a 
limited noun. 

2. Name any qualities which belong to these objects: — 
Tree, brook, gold, clouds, sponge, rose. 

Assume and then predicate, as above. 

3. Point to any five objects which you can see, and tell the 
class to which they belong, remembering that the common 
name of an object indicates its class. (See Lesson XV.) 
Assume and predicate each. Thus: — 

This object, a pencil. This object is a pencil. Charles, 
a scholar, Charles is a scholar. 

4. Name any appropriate actions for the following 
objects : — 

Birds, fishes, children, serpents, dogs. 
Assume and predicate these actions of appropriate 
objects : — 

Fly, slide, weave, run, play, study, drive. 

5. Which of the following combinations are propo- 
Bitions? Which are not? '^2im.et\iQ subjects. Name the 
limited nouns. 



Of how many parts does the predicate consist? What remark upon 
Vhe predicate when these two parts are combined? 



LESSON SIXTY-EIGHTH. 137 

The men are idle. A white horse. 

The setting sun. The snow is falling. 

The stars twinkle. Trees falling. 

Pale ink. Ice melts. 

6. Change these last examples by predicating the as- 
sumed and assuming the predicated attributes ; then name 
the subjects and the limited nouns. 

7. Analyze the following examples. Write and ana- 
lyze as many more of your own. See Model below. 

The robin sings. 
The weather is cold. 
The house was built. 
Who brought the news ? 
Where is my pen ? 
Kead the Morning Journal. 
The story was false. 

Model. — *'The robin sings'' is a proposition (also a 
sentence, 339), because it is the combination 
of a subject and a predicate (340). 

The robin is the subject ; it represents that of which 
something is affirmed. 

ISingss ... is the predicate; it represents what is af- 
firmed. 

Model.— "The wild ox of the prairie" is not a sen- 
tence, because no attribute is predicated of 
ox ; but, by assuming attributes, 
Ox is limited (1) by wild (344, 2), distin- 
guishing it from the tamed or domesticated 
ox ; (2) by of the prairie (344, 4), denoting 
the place where it is found. Thus we have a 
descriptive name of the ox, distinguishing it 
from all others. See 332, Ex. 

These descriptive names, by pointing out individual objects, supply 
the want of proper nouns (176). 



138 



LESSON LXIX. 

CLASSES OF PROPOSITIONS AXD SENTENCES. 

349. Propositioiis are divided into two 
classes^ — principal and subordinate. 

350. A principal proposition contains the 
principal or leading assertion : it is that on which 
the subordinate depends. 

Ex. — When spring comes, the flowers ivill hloom. 

Here, ^^the flowers will bloom '^ is the principal proposition, because 
H will make sense by itself. Not so with *^ when spring comes." Try 
every proposition by this test: Will it make sense when taken alone? 

351. A subordinate proposition is one which, 
by means of a subordinate connective^ depends 
upon some part of the principal proposition. 

Ex. — When spring comes, the flowers will bloom. 

''When spring comes'* does not make sense by itself; it depends upon 
or i& subordinate to " will bloom." Take away the subordinate connective 
tchen, and it will make sense alone. 

352. Exercise. 

1. Separate the following sentences into their propo- 
sitions, and tell which are principal and which are sub- 
ordinate : — 

The vessel which he has so long expected has arrived. 

Peter the Hermit, who preached the first crusade, was 
a native of Amiens, in France. 

I thought that Eugenia was sincere. 

While I was musing, the fire burned. 

Into how many classes are propositions divided? What is a principal 
proposition? What is a subordinate proposition? 



LESSON SIXTY-NINTH. 139 

I will write when my mother has arrived. 
I shall not sail for Europe until the winter has passed. 
Norman has lost the watch which his father sent him. 
Where thou goest, I will go. 

Model. — The vessel which he has so long expected has 
arrived. 

This sentence contains two propositions, a principal 
and a subordinate. " The vessel has arrived " is the 
principal; it contains the leading assertion, and 
makes sense alone. '^ Which he has so long ex- 
pected'' is the subordinate, — because, like an adjec- 
tive, it depends upon " vessel," by means of the con- 
nective " which ;" it does not make sense alone. 

353. Propositions of the same kind^ that is, 
both principal or both subordinate, are said to be 
iiiiiiilar ; those of different kinds are said to be 
disisiiinilar. 

354. A simple sentence contains but one pro- 
position. 

Ex. — The wind blows. 

Here observe one principal proposition. Is 'Mf you come" a sentence? 
Why? l^M 2b proposition? I9, it o, clause ? See 339, Rem. 

355. A complex sentence contains at least 
two propositions^ one of which must be principal 
and the rest subordinate. 

Ex. — When the wind blows, the trees bend. 

Here observe that '^the trees bend'' would make sense alone, and that 
'^when the wind blows" would not, and that both together make the sen- 
tence. 



What are similar propositions? Dissimilar? What does a simple 
Bentence contain ? A complex ? 



140 Greene's intkoduction. 

356. A compoinid sentence contains at least 
two principal propositions. 

Ex. — The winds blow and the trees bend. 

Here either clause makes sense alone; yet feoth together make the sen 
fcence. In this and the preceding, mark the clauses. 

A complex sentence must have dissimilar propositions; it may also 
nave two similav subordinate propositions; as, ''I knew wheie he icass 
and when he left." A compound sentence must have two s\m\\^v principal 
propositions; it may also have with these subordinate propositions; as, 
"Tlie wicked flee when no man pursueth; but the rig-bteoiis are 
bold aa a lion [is]." 



357. Exercise. 

1. Tell which sentences in the following exercise are 
simple, which are complex, and which are compound : — 

The gathering darkness of night comes on. 

If it should storm, the lecture will be postponed. 

Herman left the home of his childhood, and he re- 
turned no more. 

The w^aters dance gayly along. 

The dew^s of night began to fall, and the moon silvered 
the ruined abbey. 

The scenes which we loved in childhood are still dear 
to us. 

2. "Write six examples illustrating the different kinds 
of sentences. 

model. — " Man is mortal " is a simple sentence, be« 
cause it contains but one proposition. 

Would "since man is mortal*' be a simple sentence? 

" The clouds were gathering as we reached the shore " 
is a complex sentence, because it contains two propo- 
sitions, only one of which is principal. Point out the 

What does a compound sentence contain ? 



LESSON SEVENTIETH. 141 

principal and the subordinate. What is the connect- 
ive? How can you tell which clause is the principal 
and which is subordinate ? Does either alone form 
the sentence ? Would the second clause be subordi- 
nate if the connective were taken away ? 
**The sun went down in its glory, and the twilight 
began to fade from the western sky," is a compound 
sentence ; it contains two similar propositions, both 
of which are principal. How many clauses has it ? 
Would both be principal if the connective were taken 
away? How, then, does this connective differ from 
the preceding (322) ? 



LESSON LXX. 

ELEMENTS OF SENTENCES. 

358. The element of a sentence are its com% 
ponent parts^ each standing for an idea and its 
relation. 

Ex. — The shepherd gave the alarm 

when he discovered the approach of the wolf. 

Note. — Shepherd, in this example, becomes an element only when it 
is put in relation to gave. So gave becomes an element by virtue of its 
relation to shepherd ; and so of the others. The learner should bear in 
mind that a thought is analyzed when separated into its several ideas / 
H sentence is analyzed when separated into the eocpressions for those ideas. 
Thus, in the sentence above, we have four principal ideas and the same 
number of expressions. Who gave? The shepherd. What did the shep- 
herd o?o .? Gave. What did he give? The alarm. When did he give 
it? When he discovered the approach of the wolf. The learner should 
unite in one group all the words which express the idea. 

359. All elements are divided^ according to 

What are the elements of a sentence? Explain the general method 
of analyzing a s ;ntence. 



142 Greene's introduction. 

their rank or relation to each other, into prin- 
cipal and isubordinate ; and when two of the 
same kind are united, they are eoordinate 

with each other. 

Thus, every sentence must have a subject and a predi- 
cate: hence these two are principal; as, ''Pupils study." 
A sentence may also have an adjective element, an objective 
element, and an adverbial element. These three depend 
upon and modify the other two: hence they are subordi- 
nate; as, ^^ Faithful pupils jstudj grain- 
mar carefully.'' It will be seen that a sentence may 

contain five distinct elements, two principal and three 
subordinate. 

This distinction between the principal and the sulordinate parts of a 
sentence is similar to that which has just been made in propositions, 
^' FaithfuV does not make sense alone, but when joined to '^ pupils^' as 
its principal, both together show a limited number of pupils. (See Rule 
II., below.) In the same manner ^'grammar'* and *' carefully" are sub- 
ordinate to "study," and limit it. 

360. The influence which one element has 
over another in construction may be expressed 
by the following rules : — 

Rule I. — The principal element always 

controls or governs the subordinate. 

That is, it causes the subordinate either to agree with 
itself, or to take some particular case, mode, or tense. The 
former is called agreement; the latter, government Thus, 
the adjective implying number agrees in number with the 
noun ; as, " These (not this) books ;" the verb agrees in 
number and person with the subject; as, ^' I walk;'' the 

How are elements divided according to their rank or relation? What 
ftre coordinate elements? What are the principal elements of a sentence? 
Give Rule I. How does the principal element control the subordinate? 



LESSON SEVENTIETH. 143 

predicate noun or pronoun agrees in case v^ith the subject; 
as, "J am /i6." So also the noun in apposition. The 
government of the superior term is effected either directly^ 
as, ^^ Solomon's temple," — or by means of a connective; as, 
'"The temple of Solomon.'^ So also oP the objective case, 
'^AVe saw him;'' "We looked at him." So of the sub- 
junctive mode: ^'Should it rain,! shall not go;" '^IJ it 
should rain, I shall not go." 

Rule II. — The subordinate element al- 
ways modifies or limits the principal. 

That is, it restricts a general to a particidar applica- 
tion; as, "The people (not all people, but those) of Maine" 

(348, 7). 

Rule III. — Coordinate elements neither 

govern nor modify each other. 

That is, the one in no way affects the case, mode, tense, 
number, person, agreement, or application of the other; as, 
" He informed you and me." Here, me is not in the 
objective because it is coordinate with you, but because it 
is the direct object of informed. 

These three general principles involve nearly all the particular rules 
of Sjmtax. 

361. All elements are divided, according to 
their use as a whole, nito sfibstantive, adjee- 
tive, and adverbial. 

Examples, 
words. phrases. clauses. 

t^ubstantive. Song. To sing. That one should sing. 

Adjective, Wise radji. Msm of wisdom, Mslu who is wise. 

Adverbial. Eising early. At sunrise. When the sun rises. 

Give Rule 11. Rule IIL How are all elements divided according t« 
iheir nature and use? Give the examples. 



144 Greene's introduction. 

To classify elements according to their use as a whole, the learner has 
only to ask, in case of a word, what part of speech it is ; and in case of & 
group of words, what part of speech it would be if the same idea were 
expressed by one word. 



362. Exercise. 

Point out the different kinds of elements in these ex- 
amples, and tell which are principal and which are sub- 
ordinate. 

Clinton will go to the sea-side to-morrow. 

The splashing surf is refreshing. 

Yesterday, the word of Caesar might have stood against 
the world. 

Times of greatest calamity and confusion have been 
productive of the greatest minds. 

The hall of the mansion is spacious. 

The lawn in front extends to the sea. 

The restless waves over which Sir William Pepperell 
sought fortune, still glitter in the sunbeams. 

As we ascend the staircase, paintings of angels' heads 
decorate the hall window. 

Error is a hardy plant ; it flourisheth in every soil. 

Few and precious are the words which the lips of Wis- 
dom utter. 

model. — "Clinton will go to the sea-side to-morrow" 
is a simple sentence (354). The principal 
elem.ents are the subject, Clinton, and the 
predicate, will go (359). The subordinate 
elements are the adverbial element of place, 
to the seaside, w^hich limits ivill go (360, Rule 
II.), and the adverbial element of timCy to-day, 
which also limits will go. 



LESSON SEVENTY-FIKST. 145 

LESSON LXXL 

ELEMENTS, CONTINUED. 

363. Elements are divided, according to their 
/orm, into the first, second, and third classes. 

364. They are either words, phrases, or 
clauses. 

Thus, in the sentence, '^ The — -sun— shines — brightly,^* the dementi 
^'358, Note) are single words ; in the sentence, " The — streets — of th6 
^ity-^were filled — with snoto," the elements in italics are phrases; in tho 
example, " The land — which lies near the river is very fertile," the element 
in italics is a clause, 

A simple element of the first class is a single word^ 
representing both an idea and its relation ; as, *^ Good 

boys study — —grammar carefully.'' Here 

each word represents not only a distinct idea, but also it« 
relation to another idea. 

A simple element of the second class is a phrase con- 
sisting of two words, one representing an idea, and the 

other its relation; as "John lives m hope.'* Here, 

if we leave out in, the relation will not be represented : 
•'John lives hope;'' if we leave out hope, the idea will be 
wanting : " John lives in." Both must be represented by 
separate words, in the simplest possible form of the ele- 
ment. Hence the difference between an element of the 
first and an element of the second class. Simple elements 
of the second class are usually the infinitive, or the prepo- 
iition and its object taken together. The predicate, w^hen 
composed of the copula and the attribute, is properly an 
element of the second class. 



How are elements divided according to their form? What is a simple 
element of the first cUiss ? What is a simple element of the second class ? 
What are they usually ? 

10 



146 greexe's ixtroductio:n". 

Any two united words form a pTirase ; as, veri/ stronghj, tcise counsets p 
but in these examples both words represent ideas. In an element of thi! 
second class one word stands for an idea and the other for its relation; 
as, in haste J loithjoy. 

A simple element of the third class is a clause consist- 
ing of a proposition to represent an idea, and a connective 

to show its relation ; as, " I know that he went'' 

Compare this with the two preceding. 



365. Exercise. 

1. Classify the elements in the following examples : — 
James walked through the garden. 

Though he was rich, yet for our sakes he became poor. 

A peace which consults the good of both parties is the 
surest, because both parties are interested in its preserva- 
tion. 

The army marched slowly forward. 

The Greeks took Troy by stratagem. 

Honesty is the best policy. 

2. Write sentences containing woi'ds, phrases, and 
clauses as elements. 

Model. — ^^ We — were walking — in the garden — as the 
sun sank below the western horizon." 

This is a complex sentence (355). Read 
and distinguish the clauses. 
We , ... is the subject (341) ; it is a single ivord. 
Were walking is the predicate (342) ; it is a phrase 
(364) — not usually separated, though were 
expresses the relation (predicate relation) 
and ivalhing the idea of action. 
In tlie garden is a phrase^ — an adverbial element, de- 
noting the place of walking ; it has the pre- 

What is a simple clement of the third class ? 



LESSON SEVENTY-SECOND. 147 

position in to connect and show the relation, 
and garden — the object — to show the idea of 
place. It is subordinate to were walking, and 
limits its meaning (360, Rule II.). 
Aid tlie (Sim sa^nk below the weistern horizon is a 
clause (364 and 351), denoting the time 6f 
walking, and is subordinate to and limits 
(36O9 Rule II.) were walking, having as to 
connect and show the relation, and the pre- 
position to show the idea. 



LESSON LXXII. 

366. Elements are divided^ according to their 
state or condition^ into simple, complex, or 
compound. 

A simple element is a single expression for an idea and 
its relation, without modification or addition. It may be 

either a word, a phrase, or a clause ; as, " We left 

early — at dawn — as day dawned.^' 

The unmodified subject is called the simple or gram- 
matical subject; the unmodified predicate, the simple or 
grammatical predicate ; and so of all the other elements. 
» A complex element is a simple element modified by 
one or more elements subordinate to it. It is of the first, 
the second, or the third class when the simple element, 
called its basis, is of the first, the second, or the third 

class ; as, " We left very early — at early dawn — as 

day first dawned in the east^ (Compare these examples 
with the preceding.) 

How are elements divided according to their state or condition ? What 
is a simple element? What is the simple subject? Predicate? What ia 
% complex element ? 



148 Greene's introduction. 

The modified subject is called the complex or logical 
subject ; and so of all other elements. 

A compoiincl element is the union of two or more coor- 
dinate, simple, or complex elements. The component parts 
may be either of the first, the second, or the third class ; 
as, " We are employed— ear/y and lateJ^ *^ We are em- 
ployed — at noon and at nights ^^ We were travelling— 
when the wind was blowing furiously ^ and when the storm waa 
beating against our carriage^ 

The coordinate subjects taken together are called the 
compound subject; and so of all the other elements. 

367. Exercise. 

Classify the following elements : — 
The dying king tried every remedy in vain. 
Clouds and darkness are round about him. 
Righteousness and truth are the habitation of his throne. 
Eva accepted the invitation with pleasure. 
With trembling limbs and faltering steps, he departed 
from his desolate home. 

The lever which moves the world of mind is the print- 
ing-press. 

We closed the dim and lifeless eye. 

We smoothed the parted hair, 
And decked the sleeping form with flowers; 
But no bright soul was there. 

General Remark. — It may not be best, in the practical analysis of 
sentences for this Intermediate Course (see Rem., p. 54), to introduce all 
,the distinctions of the elements. The fundamental requisite is to recog- 
nize the subject, the predicate, and the words or groups of words which 
modify each, and to point out carefully the limiting effect of each. Such 
fcn analysis is sufficient to determine the prominent parts of the sentence. 

What is the modified subject called? What is a compound element? 
^hat is the compound subject? 



LESSON SEVENTY-THIRD. 149 

But for the purpo^^e of noting the different /orw« of expression which per- 
vade the language, the more minute distinctions of words, jjlirasea. and 
t7 uses, with their varieties, must be made. For a full development, see 
English Jjrrammar, or Analysis of Sentences. 

Model. — '^ When we took our leave, the evening star 
was setting in the w^est/' 

This is a complex sentence (355), declara- 
tive (334). The principal proposition (350) 
is " the evening star was setting in the west ;" 
the subordinate proposition (351) is " when 
we took our leave.'' 

Star .... is the subject (341) of the principal proposi- 
tion (and hence of the whole sentence). 

Was setting is the predicate (34S). The subject is 
limited by 

The and evening, — the showing that some particular star 
is meant, and evening showing the time of its 
appearance. 

The predicate is limited by the phrase 

In tlie west, showing where it was setting ; also, by the 
clause 

When we took our leave, showing when it was setting. 

Rem. — The teacher may require the pupil to point out the elements 
more minutely, after this kind of general analysis, or not, as he chooses. 
For examples of a closer analysis, see Models under the Rules, below. 

LESSON LXXIII. 

DEFINITIONS AND RULES. 

368. To construct a sentence, is to combine 
its several elements. 

369. To analyze a sentence, is to separate it 
into its several elements. 

What is it to construct a sentence ? To -analyze it ? 



150 Greene's introduction. 

370. To classify sentences, is to tell whethei 

they are (1) simple^ complex, or compound ; (2) 
declarative^ interrogative^ imperative, or excdama- 
iory. 

371. To transform a sentence, is to change 
its form, either by altering^ trans]posing , suppress- 
ing, or supplying any of its elements, without 
materially changing the meaning. 

372. To reconstriflct a sentence, is to express 
the same thought in other words. 

373. To parse a sentence, is to name the class 
(parts of speech) of each of its words, and to 
give their modifications, relations, agreement, or 
government, and the rules for their construction. 

374. To correct a sentence, is to alter it so as 
to make it conform to the rules of construction. 

375. A Rule of CoMstruction is a state- 
ment of the law which governs the form and 
the use of a word in construction. The follow- 
ing are the principal rules : — 

IvULE I. — A noun or a pronoun used as the subject of 

a proposition must be in the nominative case. 

EcLE 11. — A noun or a pronoun used as the attribute 
Df a proposition after the finite verb to he, or any intransi- 
tive or passive verb, must be in the nominative case. 

Rule III. — A pronoun must agree with its antece* 
dent in gender, number, and person. 

What is it to classify sentences ? To transform a sentence ? To re- 
construct it? To parse it ? What is it to correct a sentence ? Give Rula 
i. Rule II. Rule III. 



LESSON SEYENTY-THIKD. 151 

RcJLE IV. — The Terb must agree with its subject iu 
number and person. 

Rule V. — An adjective or a participle must belong to 
some noun or pronoun ; as, " The guilty man ;" ^'The man 
was guilty,'' Or, more specifically, — 

(1.) An adjective or a participle used as the attribute 
of a proposition after the verb to be, or any intransitive or 
passive verb, belongs to the subject; as, *' The tree is tall;'' 
■*To see the sun is pleasant;" "Where the funds will be 
obtained is doubtful." 

(2.) An adjective or a participle used to limit or qua- 
lify a noun, belongs to the noun which it modifies ; as, 
" An upright judge " " Five boxes ;" " The good old man." 

Rule VI. — A noun or a pronoun used to explain or 
identify another noun or pronoun, is put by apposition in 
the same case. 

Rule VII. — A noun or a pronoun used to limit another 
noun, by denoting possession, must be in the possessive 
case. 

Rule VIII. — A noun or a pronoun used as the object 
of a transitive verb, or its participles, must be in the ob- 
jective case. 

Rule IX. — Adverbs are used to limit verbs, partici- 
ples, adjectives, and other adverbs. 

Rule X. — The nominative case independent, and 
the interjection, have no grammatical relation to the 
other parts of the sentence. 

Rule XI. — Coordinate conjunctions are used to con^ 
nect similar elements. 

Rule XII. — When a verb or a pronoun relates to two 
or more nouns connected by a coordinate conjunction, — 

Give Rule IV. Rule V. Rule VI. Rule VII. Rule VIII. Rule 
IX. Rule X. Rule XL Rule XII. 



152 

(1.) If it agrees with them taken conjointly, it must 
be in the plural number. 

(2.) But if it agrees with them taken (separately, it 
must be of the same number as that which stands next to it. 

(3.) If it agrees with one, and not tlie other, it must 
take the number of that one. 

EuLE XIII. — A preposition is used to show the relation 
of its object to the word on which the latter depends. 

EuLE XIV. — A noun or a pronoun used as the object 
of a preposition, must be in the objective case. 

Rule XV. — Subordinate connectives are used to join 
dissimilar elements. 

EuLE XVI. — The infinitive has the construction of 
the noun, with the signification and limitations of the verb, 
and when dependent is governed by the word which it 
limits. 

Rule XVII.— Participles have the construction of 
adjectives and nouns, and are limited like verbs. 



LESSON LXXIV, 

SIMPLE. SENTENCES ELEMENTS OF THE 

FIRST CLASS WORDS. 

376. An element of the first class is a single 
iiord. 

CONSTRUCTION OF THE SUBJECT. 

377. The subject is always put in construction 
with the predicate, and by the following rule : — 

Give Rule XIII. Rule XIA^ Rule XV. Rule XVI. Rule XVU 
W\ih what is the subject always put in construction ? 



LESSON SEVENTY-FOURTH. 153 

Rule I. — A noun or a pronoun used as the 
subject of a proposition must be in the nomi- 
native case. 

Ex. — Ccesar conquered Gaul. 

PtEM. — This rule is universal. Whatever is used as the subject, wh^ 
ther a letter, a syllable, a phrase, or a clause, is of the nature of a noun, 
and must be in the nominative case. 

378. Caution and Exercises. 

379. Caution. — Never use the objective as the subject of a 
finite verb. Say, ^' Jdid it/'— not ''Me did it.'' 

1. Construction. — Construct five other sentences like 
any of the following in (1), (2), (5), or (6) : — 

(1.) (Subject and predicate expressed,) Time flies. She 
reads. Ida walks. Jesus wept. Kings reign. Fruit ripens. 
I live. 

(2.) (Subject understood.) Come. Study. Awake. 
Arise. Go. See. Return. Behold. 

Model. — "Come" is a sentence; its subject is understood. 
I supply " thou/' ''you,'' or '^yeJ' Thus, " Come thou." 

(3.) (Subject wanting,) buzz. study. ■ 

drink. play. frisk. 

Model. — "Buzz" is not a sentence; it has no subject. 
I add " bees." Thus, " Bees buzz." 

(4.) (Parts to be combined,) Wind roar; he speak; she 
sit ; it snow. 

(5.) (Something inquired for,) Who whistles? Where is 
he ? Which is lost ? When will you come ? 

(6.) (An exclamation,) How it rains ! Let me alone ! 
What ! have you come ! 

Model. — "Wind roar" is not a sentence; the parts 

Give Rule I. The remark upon it. The caution. 



154 

are not combined. I change ^^wind" to "winds.'' 
Thus, "Winds roar." 

2. Analysis. — Analyze the jDreceding sentences. 
Model. — "Time flies" is a sentence; it is a thought 

expressed in words. " Time" is the subject; it is that 
of which something is afiirmed. " Flies" is the predi- 
cate; it is that which is afiirmed of the subject. 

3. Parsing. — Parse the subjects in the preceding ex. 
amples. See for a model 207. 

4. Classification. — Classify (1) the preceding seii 
tences; (2) their elements. 

Thus, "Time flies" is a simple, declarative sentence ^ 
simple, it contains but one proposition ; dedarative, il 
declares something. " Come" is a simple, imperative sen^ 
tence. Why? The subject and predicate in each is an 
element of the first class, each being a single word ex- 
pressing an idea and its relation. 

Note. — Classification, analysis, and parsing may be combined. Thus, 
''Time flies" is a simple, declarative sentence. *' Time" is the subject, 
and '"flies" is the predicate; both elements of the first class. "Time" is 
a common noun, ka. 

5. Transformation. — Transform the preceding sen- 
tences. 

(1.) Change them to interrogative. Thus, "Does time 
fly?" 

(2.) Change them to imperative, and point out the 
transpositions. Thus, " Fly thou, time." 

(3.) Change them to exclamatory. " How time flies!" 

(4.) In (2), suppress the subject and nominative inde- 
pendent. Thus, " Fly." 

(5.) Change the number, person, and gender (when it 
can be done) of the subjects, and explain the consequent 
changes in the predicate. Substitute pronouns for each 
of the subject-nouns, and explain their agreement by 
Rule HI. 



LESSON SEVENTY-FIFTH. 155 

6. Correction. — Correct by the Caution the following 
examples, and find any similar ones on pages 52 and 53 : — 
Claud and me are going together. Him that is stu- 
dious will improve. Lionel will find the lost lamb sooner 
than me. Who told you that story? Him and her. I 
knew it as well as her. Them are the books I w^anted. 
Did they say whom was coming ? 

Model. — ^^ Claud and me are going together" is incor- 
rect, because the objective pronoun me is made the 
subject of the verb " are going." It should be (see 
Caution) " Claud and I are going together." 
Correct any improper expressions which you have 
beard to-day. 

LESSON LXXV. 

CONSTKUCTION OF THE PREDICATE. 

^380. The predicate is put in construction with 
the subject by one of the following rules : — 

Rule II. — A noun or a pronoun used as the 
attribute of a proposition after the finite verb 
^Ho be/' or any intransitive or passive verb^ must 
be in the nominative case. 

Ex. — It is he; they are philosophers. 

Rule V. Specific Rule. (I.) 

An adjective used as the attribute of a pro- 
position after the finite verb '^ to be/' or any in- 
transitive or passive verb^ belongs to the subject. 

Ex. — The war was sanguinary. 

With what is the predicate put in construction ? Give Rule II. Give 
Special Rule. 



156 Greene's introduction. 

Rule IV. — The verb must agree with iti 
subject in number and person. 
Ex. — I am; thou art sitting, 

381. Rule II.— Caution and Exercises, 

382. Caution. — Never use the objective as the attribute. 
Say, " It is J/'— not " It is me." 

1. Construct five other examples like the following (in 
1), and fill the blanks : — 

(1.) {Sub. and pred, expressed.) Gold is a metal. It 
is she. It is I. Panama is an isthmus. 

(2.) (^Subject ivanting.) is an island. is he. 

is a merchant. 

(3.) (Attribute ivanting.) Boston is a . Borneo 

is an . It is . 

(4.) ( Copula ivanting.) George my brother. Paul 

^^ an apostle. Kero — — a tyrant. • 

2. Analyze, classify, and parse the foregoing sentences. 
JHodel. — "Gold is a metal" is a simple, declarative 

sentence. Why? "Gold" is the subject, and "is a 
metal" is the predicate. Why? "Is" is the copula, 
and " metal" is the attribute.'^ " Gold" is a common 
noun, &c. (Model, p. 74.) " Is" is an irregular in- 
transitive verb, &c. (Model, p. 121.) "Metal" is a 
common noun, third person, singular number, neuter 
gender, and nominative case. It is used as the attri- 
bute after " is," according to Eule II. 

3. Transform any of the foregoing examples, as in the 
previous Lesson. 

Give Rule IV. The caution under Rule II. 



* The predicate, when formed of the copula and attribute, is pro- 
perly an element of the second class, being a phrase. It is most con- 
veniently discussed here, but will be found in its proper place hereafter. 



LESSON SEVENTY-FIFTH. 157 

4. Correct the following examples: — 
It is me. Whom is it? It is him. Whom do you 
think it is? It is not them. 



383. Rule V« -Specific Rule (I.)— Exercise. 

L Construct five other examples like the following: — 
Delays are dangerous. George was lame. They will 
be rich. He might have been deceitful. We were suc- 
cessful. Who was merciful? Be active. Will they be 
peaceful? Be content. 

Note. — Let the teacher, if he deems it necessary, add other exam- 
ples with the subject, attribute, or copula wanting. Let the pupils be 
required to use adjectives as attributes in propositions of their own. 

2. Analyze, classify, and parse the preceding exam- 
ples : — 

Model. — ** Be active" is a simple, imperative sentence. 
Why? ^^Thou" understood is the subject. "Why? 
"Be active" is the predicate, of which "be" is the 
copula and " active" the attribute, " Be" is an irregu- 
lar, intransitive verb, imperative mode, present tense, 
second person singular, and agrees with "thou," un- 
derstood. (Kule IV.) "Active" is an adjective used 
as the attribute after " be," and belongs to " thou," 
understood. (Rule V.) Special Rule (1), "An ad- 
jective used as the attribute," &c. 

8. Transform any of the foregoing examples as in the 
previous Lesson. 

384. Rule IV.— Cautions and Exercises, 

385. Caution \,— Avoid the use of a singular verb with 
a plural subject, or a plural verb ivith a singular subject 

Give Rule IV. Caution I. 



158 gkeene's intkoduction. 

Say, *' Where were you?" — not *' Where was you?" 
*^Each of his brothers was well," — not *^Each i^ere well." 

386. Caution II. — Be careful not to use the wrong verb^ 
aSy set for sit ; lay for lie ; come for go ; nor the wrong form^ 
as, done for did ; wTote for written ; nor the wrong tense, as, 
see for saw ; give for gave ; nor improper contractions, as, 
ain't for are not. 

1. Construct five other examples like the following: — 
AVater flows. Kings have reigned. Vice degrades. 

Will winter come? Read. James may have written. 
Isabel sings. Begone, wretch ! 

Note. — Let the teacher require other examples, if necessary, giving 
the subjects, and leaving the predicates blank, &c. See previous lessons. 

2. Classify, analyze, and parse the preceding examples; 
also, those you have constructed. 

Note. — For models, see the preceding. 

3. Transform the preceding sentences. Change the 
modes, tenses, and forms of the verbs. Give a synopsis 
of the verbs. 

4. Correct (Caution I.) the following examples : — 
There's ten of us going. Was you sheltered from the 

rain? Henry need not be so positive. Randolph dare 
not do wrong. Circumstances alters cases. A number 
of spectators were already there. The captain, with all 
the crew, w^ere lost. 

5. Correct (Caution 11.) the following examples : — 

I seen Peter when he done it. Amanda had broke my 
pencil. Tell the boys to set still. The cat laid down by 
the fire. I didn't meant to done it. Ella is going to lay 
down. Augustus has wrote his letter. Ain't it queer! 
Ain't they ever going home? Eliza knowed her spelling 
lesson better than Joseph. 



Give Caution II. 



LESSON SEVENTY-SIXTH. 159 

LESSON LXXVL 

AGREEMENT AND CONSTRUCTION OF THE PRONOUN. 

The agreement of the pronoun is according to 
the following rule : — 

Rule III. — A proiioiiii must agree with its 
antecedent in gender^ number, and person. 

Its construction, like that of the noun, depends upon its 
relation in the sentence; it may be in the nominative, the 
possessive, or the objective case. 

Rem. 1. — The personal pronoun it is often used without an ante- 
cedent. 

Ex.— /drains; i7 thunders. 

Sometimes it represents an object indefinitely, in order to predicate it 
by name, 

Ex. — It is a peony; it is Charles. 

Som(?times it is used as an expletive (to fill a vacancy). 

Ex. — Come trip it as you go. 

Rem. 2. — Two rules should be given in parsing a personal pronoun, 
one for its agreement, and one for its construction. In case of a relative 
pronoun, we must add Rule XV. to show its connection, and for what, 
whatever, and whatsoever, Rule V. to explain its value as an adjective. 

Rem. 3. — The relative pronoun has a restrictive and an explanatory 
use; the former, when like an adjective it limits the meaning of the ante- 
cedent; the latter, when it explains or adds some circumstance connected 
with it. 

Ex. — [Restrictive.) Those vjlio are industrious and frugal will be 
rewarded. (Explanatory.) He gave me a book, which he requested me to 
read. 

Rem. A:.— -What, whatever, and other compound relatives, generally, 
have a double construction; they represent both the antecedent and the 
relative. For a more full discussion of these, see English Grammar, 
p. 217. 

Cautions and Exercises. 

Caution I. — Avoid the use of a noun and a pronoun as 

Give Rule III. Caution I. 



160 

subject or object of the same verb, unless great emphasis is 
required. 

Say, '' The boy did it,"— not " The boy he did it/' 

Caution II. — Avoid the use of a plural pronoun having 
a singular antecedent. 

Say, *^ Let every one attend to his work," — not " their 
work." 

Caution III. — Avoid the use of who wheji speaking of 
animals and inanimate objects, and of whicli when speaking 
of persons. 

Say, "The hawk ivhich caught the jay," — not ^^ who 
caught." "The carpenter who' built the house," — not 
'' which hwiXt:'' 

Caution IV. — Avoid the use of the interrogative who 
when the construction requires whom. 

Say, ''Whom did you see?"— not ''Who did you see?" 

1. Construct five examples containing a personal pro- 
noun, five containing a simjjle relative, five containing a 
compound relative, and five containing an interrogative; 
and parse the pronouns in the following examples. 

(1.) The plums are ripe; they are delicious. 

(2.) The trout which Fisher caught weighed one pound. 

(3.) He is welcome to what information he has ob- 
tained. 

(4.) Who brought the news last evening? 

Iflodel. — "She was grateful for what attentions she 
received" is a complex, declarative sentence, of which 
"she" is the subject of the principal clause, and con- 
sequently of the sentence, and "was grateful" is the 
predicate. "Was grateful" is limited by the expres- 
sion " for what attentions she received," which shows 
for what she was grateful. The expression contains 

Give Caution II. Caution III. Caution IV. 



LESSON SEVENTY-SEVENTH. 161 

two parts, — " for attentions" and " what she received." 
"Attentions" is governed by "for," and limited by 
" what" = ^Ao^6, and by "what she received" = Wiic/j 
she received. The first use of what is as adjective, limit- 
ing "attentions," by Rule V. The second is as vela- 
tive, governed by " received," Eule VIII. It agrees 
with "attentions" in person, number, and gender, 
Rule III.; it connects the clause "what she received" 
to " attentions," Rule XV. 

2. Correct by the Cautions the following examples : — 
I tell you, Harry he came rushing into the room. Mary, 

poor girl, she arrived an hour too late. If any one has 
borrowed my slate, I wish they would return it. Some 
one has been here, for they left the door open. The horse 
who was killed by lightning belonged to Mr. Jones, which 
bought him only the day before. Who did you invite to 
the party? Who will he take as a companion? 

3. Construct three complex sentences containing rela- 
tive pronouns. 

Can there be a relative pronoun in a simple sentence? Can there be » 
conjunctive adverb in a simple sentence? 

LESSON LXXVIL 

CONSTRUCTION OF THE ADJECTIVE ELEMENT. 

387. The adjective element is put in con- 
struction with a noun or a pronoun. 

Note. — The adjective element of the sentence is put in construction 
with the subject. 

388. When the adjective element is an ad- 
jective^ it is subject to the following rule: — 

With what is the adjective element put in construction? 
11 



162 geeexe's ixteoduction. 

Specific Rule (2). 

[See Rule Y.) An adjective or a participle useO 
to limit or qualify a noun, belongs to the noun 
which it modifies. 

RejI. 1. — The limiting adjective is usually placed before the qualify- 
ing : as, "' This old man:'"' "tliis valuable hint."' 

Rem'. 2. — A or an belongs to nouns in the singular number; as, ''A 
book;'" '■ a/2 apple."' But before feir, hundred; and (housn/id it seems to 
belong to a plural noun;, as, "'A hundred ships;'" "'a/eir men;"' "a 
thousand pounds.'''' 

Rem. 3. — The belongs to nouns either singular or plural; as, "The 
man; the men.''' Eor the use and the omission of the article, see English 
Grammar. 

389. AVhen the adjective element is a noun or 
a pronoun, it is subject to the following rules: — 

EuLE VI. — A noun or a pronoun used to ex- 
plain or iclenti:^' another noun or pronoun, is 
put bv apposition in the same case. 

Ex. — William the conqutror defeated Harold the Saxon 
Icing, 

EuLE VII. — A noun or a pronoun used to limit 
another noun, by denoting possession, must be 
In the possessive case. 

Ex. — Stephens courage failed. Whose book is this? 

Rem. — TThen two or more possessive nouns are connected coordinately. 
if they imply the possession of one object in common, the sign is applied 
•only to the last: as, ''Little and Broicn's store r but, if they imply the 
possession of different objects of the same name, the possessive sign 
should be applied to each; as, *'• I have an Enier^on's and a Grecnleafa 
Arithmetic." 

Rule V. rSpecial 2) ? Give Remark 1. Remark 2. Remark 3. Give 
Rule VI. Give Rule VII. 



LESSON SEVENTY-SEVENTH. 163 

390. Cautions and Exercise for Specific Rule (2)^ 
Rule y. 

391. Caution I. — Never use *^a" before a word begin- 
ning ivith the sound of a vowel, nor "" an " before a word 
beginning with the sound of a consonant Say, ''An apple/' — 
not '^ a apple." 

392. Caution II. — Avoid the use of a plural adjective 
to limit a singular noun. Say, " That sort of people,'' — ' 
not '' those sort." 

393. Caution III. — Never use the pronoun ''them'' for 
the adjective " those.'' Say, " Those books," — not " them 
books." 

394. Caution IV. — Avoid the use of the adjective for 
the adverb. Say, " Sipea^k promptly," — not "prompt." 

1. Construct other examples like each of the follow- 
ing:— 

(1.) {One limiting adjective.) — This man came. Five 
dogs ran. The ink fades. Some scholars study. 

(2.) ( One qualifying adjective.) — Old wood burns. Wise 
men err. Wicked men fear. Cold winter comes. 

(3.) {Two limiting.) — The first dawn appeared. The 
two travellers returned. The second class recites. 

(4.) {One Urn. and one qual.) — Every new lesson puz* 
zles. Any good book instructs. Many old houses felL 
The new toy pleases. 

(5.) {Two qualifying.^) — Good little children obey. 
Pretty wild flowers grew. 

(6.) {One Km. and tivo gifa^.) — The little feathered 
songster warbles. That ambitious young man excels. 

2. Classify, analyze, and parse the foregoing examples. 

Give Caution I. under Rule V. Caution II. Caution III. Caution IV, 



164 geeene's ixteoduction. 

Model. — ^' Cold winter comes" is a simple declaratm 
sentence. Why? ''Winter" is the simple subject' 
it is the subject without modification or additionc 
"Comes" is the predicate. Why? Both are ele- 
ments of the first class. Why? ''Cold winter" i^ 
the complex subject ; it is the simple subject with all 
its modifications. "Winter" is limited by "cold," a 
simple adjective element of the first class. It shows 
what kind of winter it is. "Cold" is a qualifying 
adjective of the positive degree. See Model, p. 79. 

3. Transform the foregoing sentences, as in previous 
lessons. 

4. Correct the following examples : — 

(1.) (Caution I.) He wore an uniform at the ball. 
Arnold was not a honorable man. I do not like such an 
one as that. This is an hard saying. Hugh has been gone 
a hour. 

(2.) (Caution II.) I do not like those kind of words. 
The lot is fifty foot wide. We wxnt about six mile an 
hour. 

(3.) (Caution III.) Tell them boys to be still. Them 
apples are quite ripe. Them are the keys. Harry is fond 
of them things. 

(4.) (Caution IV.) Beatrice speaks Italian fluent, and 
plays the harp beautiful. The stream flows silent on. I 
am exceeding sorry that it was not ready sooner. 

395. Rule VI.— Exercises. 

1. Construct two other examples like each of the fol- 
lowing : — 

(1.) {Simple element.) King Latinus ruled. Queen 
Mary reigned. President Taylor died. General Wash- 
ington commanded. 



LESSON SEVEXTY-SEVENTH. 165 

(2.) (^Complex element.) Bunyan, the distinguished au- 
thor, endured. Demosthenes, the celebrated orator^ de- 
claimed. Arnold, the base traitor, escaped. 

(3.) {Compoimd element.) The Presidents, Washington^ 
Jefferson, Madison, Monroe, and Tyler, were Virginians. 
The sovereigns, Ferdinand and Isabella, united Castile and 
Arragon. 

(4.) ( Complex and compound element.) Those sisters, the 
cruel Mary and the sagacious Elizabeth, were queens of 
England. 

3. Classify, analyze, and parse the preceding examples. 

Model. — "Arnold, the base traitor, escaped," is a 
simple declarative sentence. "Arnold" is the subject 
(S4), and " escaped " is the predicate (25). The sub- 
ject is limited by the expression " the base traitor," 
showing what Arnold is meant ; or more minutely 
thus, — "Arnold" is the simple, and "Arnold, the 
base traitor," is the complex subject. "Escaped" is 
the predicate. "Arnold" is limited by "the base 
traitor," a complex adjective element of the first 
class, — of which "traitor" is the basis, limited by 
"the" and "base," simple adjective elements of the 
first class. " Traitor " is a common noun, third 
person, singular number, masculine gender, and no- 
minative case, and is used to identify "Arnold," ac^ 
cording to Rule VI. 



396. Caution and Exercises for Rule VII. 

397. Caution. — Never omit the sign oj possession in 
writing the possessive of a noun^ nor employ it iri writing 
that Of a pronoun. Write man's, not mans; its, not ifs. 

What Caution under Rule VII. ? 



166 

1. Construct five other examples like each of the fol« 
lowing : — 

(1.) {^Simple element?) Mary's mother came. Welling- 
ton's renown increased. Napoleon's army marched. Wil- 
liam's invention failed. 

Note. — Let the teacher propose examples in which some of the ele- 
ments are wanting. 

(2.) ^Elements complex,) The old man's daughter awoke. 
The merry huntsman's horn aroused. The bright sun's rays 
illumine. 

(3.) {Elements compound.) Mason and Dixon's line 
separates. Webster's, Worcester's, and Eichardson's Dic- 
tionary were consulted. (See Remark under the Rule.) 

2. Classify, analyze, and parse the preceding examples. 
Model. — ^'Wellington's renown increased" is a simple 

declarative sentence. Why ? '' Renown " is the simple, 
and " Wellington's renown" the complex subject ; "in- 
creased" is the predicate. " Renown," the subject, is 
limited by "Wellington's," a simple adjective element 
of the first class. Why ? It shows ivhose renown is 
meant. " Wellington's " is a proper noun, third per- 
son, singular number, possessive case ; it is used to 
limit " renown," by denoting possession, according to 
Rule VII. 

3. Transform the foregoing sentences — 

(1.) By changing, as in the preceding lessons. 

(2.) By changing the possessive to an elemejit of the 
(Second class (consisting of the preposition "of" and its 
object) placed after the noun. Thus, ''Mary's mother f 
'' the mother of Mary:' 

4. Correct by the Caution the following examples . — 
They studied Websters Spelling Book. This shawl is 

Rer's. That is Thomas kite. The nations hopes are blasted. 
Their's let the profit be. 



LESSON SEVENTY-SEVENTH. 167 

308. General Exercise. 

5. Analyze the following sentences, and parse any words 
which come under the first seven Rules : — 

He was a burning and a shining light. 
Grim darkness furls his leaden shroud. 
Art is long, and time is fleeting. "O" is a vowel. 
Now fades the glimmering landscape on the sight. 
But Hope, the charmer, lingered still behind. 
Hushed were his Gertrude's lips. 
Art thou that traitor angel ? 
Angelica Kauifman was a distinguished artist. 
Their only labor was to kill the time. 
That life is long which answers life's great end. 
Your friend Harry Vernon has become a distinguished 
lawyer. 

Oar harps we left by Babel's stream. 

Charles I. v/as beheaded. 

The child w^as called Maud. 

Hail, Sabbath ! thee I hail — the poor man's day. 

O lives there. Heaven, beneath thy vast expanse, 
One hopeless^ dark idolater of chance ? 

Boon nature scattered free and wild, 
Each plant or flower, the mountain's child. 

But when the sun, in all his state. 

Illumed the eastern skies, 
He passed through Glory's morning gate, 

And walked in Paradise. 

6. Collect and bring in any violations of the first sevei| 
Rules, or of the Cautions under them. 



168 Greene's introduction. 

LESSON LXXVIII. 

THE OBJECTIYE ELEMENT. 

399. The objective element is put in construe* 
tion with a transitive verb bj the following 
rule :— 

Rule VIII. — A noun or a pronoun, used as 
the object of a transitive verb or its participles, 
must be in the objective case. 

Ex. — He found the object which he desired. 

Rem. 1. — The indirect object which shows that to or for which any 
• thing is, or is done, properly speaking, follows a preposition understood. 
Ex. — Give me a book = Give to me a book. The preposition should 
be used when the direct object is placed first. 

Rem. 2. — The following verbs, mahe, appoint, elect, create, constitute^ 
render, namef style, call, esteem, think, consider, regard, reckon, and snuie 
others, take a double object,— the first direct, or principal, — the second, 
its attribute, and hence called the attributive object. 

Ex. — They called him John. 

Rem. 3. — The following verbs, buy, sell, jylai/, sing, and many others, 
take two objects, one direct, and the other indirect. 

Ex. — Buy me a knife. 

Rem. 4. — The object may be the infinitive or a substantive clause. 

Ex. — The girl loves to read ; I knew that you icould come. 

4:00. Caution and Exercises. 

401. Caution. — Never use the nominative as the object 
of a transitive verb. Say, ''Whom did he visit?" — not 
''Who did he visit?" 

With what is the objective element put in construction? Give Rule 
Vril. What remark on the indirect object? What verbs take a double 
object? What is remarked of the verbs buy, sell, <fec.? What is the re- 
mark on the infinitive and the substantive clause? Give the caution 
under Rule VIII. 



LESSON SEVENTY-EIGHTH. 169 

1. Construct five other examples like the following: — 
(1.) {Simple objective?) Columbus discovered America. 

Pizarro conquered Peru. Ada uses perfume. James 
killed flies. 

(20 (Complex objective?) He lived a desolate life. 
They found agreeable companions. She recognized Hen- 
ry's voice. Have you read the " Dairyman's Daughter" ? 
They burned Huss the reformer. Herod beheaded John 
the Baptist. 

(3.) ( Compound objective.) He declined the honor and 
the emolument. The grocer kept dates and figs. The 
legislature passed laws and resolves. 

(4.) {Double object?) They made him king. He ap- 
pointed John monitor. They called him George. Give 
me flowers. 

Model. — " They made him king" is a simple decla- 
rative sentence. "They" is the subject; '^ made" is 
the simple and "made him king" the complex predi- 
cate. " Made" is modified by " him king," a double 
object, both parts being necessary to complete the 
meaning of the verb; "him" is the principal and 
" king" the attributive object. (See Rule VIII., Rem. 
2.) Parse each separately, applying Rule VIII. , and 
Rem. 2. 

2. Correct by the Caution the following examples : — 
Who did you see yesterday? Who did he marry? 

They that help us, we should reward. Who should I find 
but my cousin? I do not know who to send. 

3. Classify, analyze, and parse the foregoing sen 
tences. 

Model. — "Columbus discoverer] America." It is a 
simple declarative sentence. Why ? " Columbus" is 
the subject. Why? "Discovered" is the simple and 
" discovered America" is the complex predicate. 



170 

*' Discovered" is limited by "America/' a simple ob- 
jective element of the first class, showing what Co- 
lumbus discovered. "America'' is a proper noun, 
third person, singular number, neuter gender, ob^ 
jective case, and is used as the object of "discovered/* 
Kule VIII. 

4. Transform any of the foregoing sentences by 
changing the object into the subject, and the verb from 
the active to the passive voice. Thus, "America was dis- 
covered by Columbus.'' 

5. Construct and analyze five sentences having subjects 
limited by complex adjective elements, and predicates 
limited by complex objective elements. 

LESSON LXXIX. 

CONSTRUCTION OF THE ADYERBIAL ELEMENT. 

402. The adverbial element is put in con- 
struction with a verbj a participle^ an adjective, 
or an adverb^ by the following rule: — 

EuLE IX. — Adverbs are used to limit verbs, 
participles, adjectives^ and other adverbs. 

Ex. — Lightning moves siviftly. Walking sloivly along, 
we came to a hill. The water is very deep. Move your 
fingers very quickly. 

Caution and Exercises. 

403. Caution I. — Never use two negatives to express a 
negation. 

Say, '' I want no aid," — not " I don't want no aid." 



With what is the adverbial element put in construction ? Give 
Rule IX. Caution I. 



LESSON SEVEXTY-XINTH. 171 

404. Caution II. — Never use '' hoiv'' before ''that,'' not 
instead of it. 

Say, "He said that he would come/' — not ''how that 
he would come/' nor " how he would come." 

1. Construct six other sentences like the following: — 
(1.) (Simple adverbial elemeyit.) She played finely. 

The campaign opened vigorously. The boat arrived yes- 
terday. They ride frequently. 

(2.) (^Complex adverbial element) She hears very im- 
perfectly: They go too often. She sews very neatly. He 
managed most adroitly. 

(3.) {Adverbial element compound.) She writes rapidly 
and neatly. The rain falls softly and silently. He came 
early and late. 

(4.) ( Complex adjective and complex objective wanting.) 

horn aroused early. son inherited 

legally. 

2. Analyze and parse the foregoing. 

Model. — "Lawrence writes carefully" is a simple 
declarative sentence. "Lawrence" is the subject; 
"writes" is the grammatical and "writes carefully" 
the logical predicate. " Writes" is modified by " care- 
fully/' a simple adverbial element of the first class; 
adverbial, because it is added to a verb, and shows 
how he writes; simple, because it receives no modifi- 
cation or addition; first class, because it is a single 
word, expressing both the idea of care and its relation 
to "writes." " Carefully" is an adverb of manner,— 
compared, carefidly, more carefidly, most carefidly. li 
limits " writes." Eule IX. 
8. Correct by Caution I. the following examples : — 
I cannot write no more. Candace says how that she 

Give Caution II. 



172 

won't go nohow. Paul will never be no better. Raymond 

hasn't been to no shop. 

4. Correct the following by Caution II. : — 

Ella said how she believed it. Just remember how that 

a penny saved is a penny earned. Isaac said how that he 

would come. 

INTERJECTION AND CASE INDEPENDENT. 

Rule X. — The nominative case mdepeiident 
and the interjection have no grammatical rela- 
tion to the other parts. 

1. Construct and parse other examples like these:—- 
(1.) {By direct address.) Plato, thou reasonest well. 

Children, obey your parents. 

(2.) (By exclamation.) O thought ineffable ! O vision 
blest ! O my misfortune ! when shall I be released ! 

(3.) (By pleonasm.) The pilgrim fathers, where are 
they? Gad, a troop shall overcome him. 

(4.) (Case absolute.) See Special Rule, under Rule 
XVII. He having given us the direction, we departed. 
Shame being lost, all virtue is lost. 

Model. — "Plato, thou reasonest well,'' is a simple 
sentence. Why? "Thou" is the simple subject, 
"reasonest" is the simple and "reasonest well" is the 
complex predicate. "Plato" is a proper noun, second 
person, singular number, masculine gender, and nomi- 
native case independent, by direct address ; it forms 
no part of the proposition. Rule X. 

2. Construct five examples containing interjections, ana 
Darse them by the rule. 

Model. — "Alas! I then have chid away my friend." 



Give Rule X. 



LESSON EIGHTIETH. 173 

"Alas" is an interjection; it has no grammatical re- 
lation to the rest of the sentence. Rule X. 

405* General Parsing Exercises. 

Imperial Rome governed the bodies of men, but not 
their souls. 

The sentinel inquired, "Who comes there?'' 

Speak softly, for a breath might wake her. 

Fair daffodils ! we weep to see you haste away so soon* 

The pilgrim fathers, where are they ! 

Sweet day! so calm, so still, so bright, 
The bridal of the earth and sky. 

Let us repeat that prayer in the hour when the wicked 
assail us. Let us repeat it now, and say, " O Father, for- 
give them 1" 

Thou, too, sail on, O ship of State! 
Sail on, O Union, strong and great ! 
Fear not each sudden sound and shock, 
'Tis of the wave, and not the rock. 
Sail on, nor fear to breast the sea^ 
Our hearts, our hopes, are all with thee. 

LESSON LXXX. 

CONSTRUCTION AND USE OF CONNECTIVES. COOR- 
DINATE CONNECTIVES. 

(partial compound SENTENCES.) 

406. Coordinate connectives are used when 
the parts to be united are similar. The sentence 
then has one or more of its parts compound, and 
is called a partial compound sentence. 



174 GREEXE^S IXTEODUCTIOX. 

EuLE XI. — Coordinate conjunctions are used 
to connect similar elements. 

Ex. — Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob were Je^Yisll patri- 
archs. 



407. Exercises. 

1. Construct three other examples like each of these. 
(1.) {Subjects coordinate.^ Exercise and temperance 

strengthen the constitution. Romulus and Remus were 
twin brothers. 

(2.) {Predicates coordinate.^ Education expands and 
elevates the mind. Religion refines and purifies the 
affections. Ko fascinated throng weep, and m-elt, and 
tremble at his eloquence. 

(3.) {Adj. element coordinate.) "Wise and good men 
are frequently unsuccessful. A bright and glorious pros- 
pect is opened by Christianity. A plain and simple style 
recommends and heightens the sublime. 

(4.) {Ohj. element coordinate:) Pope wrote the Mes^ 
siah, and the Essay on Criticism. Behold my mother 
and my brethren. The creation demonstrates God's power 
and wisdom. 

(5.) {Adverbial element coordinate.) The waves dashed 
wildly and furiously against the boat. Live cjuietly and 
contentedly. 

2. Classify, analyze, and parse the foregoing examples. 
Model. — "Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob were Jewish 

patriarchs." It is a partial compound sentence, be- 
cause one of its parts, the subject, is compound. It 
is declarative. Why? "Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob" 
is the compound subject, consisting of three component 

When are coordinate connectives used ? Give Rule XL 



LESSON EIGHTIETH. 175 

parts. Name them. "Were Jewish patriarchs" is 
the complex, and "were patriarchs" the simple pre- 
dicate; "and" is a coordinate conjunction, and is 
used to connect the similar elements "Isaac" and 
"Jacob," according to Rule XI. 

3. Construct and analyze other examples like the above, 
with the component parts complex. 

4, Transform the foregoing examples by making them 
into complete compound sentences. Thus : — 

"Abraham was a Jewish patriarch, Isaac w^as a Jewish 
patriarch, and Jacob was a Jewish patriarch." Then sup- 
press the common part and restore the sentence to its 
present form. 

408. In the construction of a verb or a pronoun which 
relates to two or more nouns connected by a coordinate 
conjunction, observe the following rule : — 

Rule XII. — (1.) If the verb or pronoun agrees with 
them coisjointly, it must be in the plural number. 

(2.) But if it agrees with them taken separately, it 
must be of the same number as that which stands next 
to it. 

(3.) If it agrees with one, and not the other, it must 
take the number of that one. 

Exercises. 

Construct other examples like these : — 

(1.) ( Conjointly.) Charles and his sister were absent, bufe 
they were sent for. One day the poor woman and her idioi 
boy were missed from the market-place. 

(2.) {Separately.) Neither his vote, his influence, nor 
his purse, was ever withheld from the cause in which he 
had engaged. Neither the captain nor the sailors we^r^ 
saved. 

Give Rule XII. 



176 Greene's introduction. 

(3.) ( One^ and not the other.) Charles, and not his sister 
was absent. The parents, and not the child, are respon 

sible. 



LESSON LXXXI. 

ELEMENTS OF THE SECOND CLASS PHRASES. 

409. An element of the second class is always 
a phrase^ and is usually an infinitive (413), a 
copula and an attribute (3479 REM.)j*or a pre- 
position and its object. 

CONSTRUCTION AND USE OF THE PREPOSITION. 

Rule XIII. — A prepositiosi is used to show 
the relation of its object to the word on which 
the latter de]3ends. 

Ex. — George went into the garden. 

Rule XIV. — A noun or a pronoun, used as the 
object of a preposition^ must be in the objective 
case. 

Ex. — The ruins of the Parthenon stand upon the Acro- 
polis, in the city of Athens, 

Rem. 1. — The preposition is generally to be supplied before nouns de- 
noting time, measure, distance, value, — or after the adjectives like, near, 
ni(jh, worth; as, *' He walked [through] two miles;" *^ He is like [to] Lis 
father." 

1. Construct other examples like each of the follow- 
ing :— 

Give Rule XIII. Rule XIV. In what cases is the prepositioH gene- 

r«,ll7 omitted? 



LESSON EIGHTY-FIRST. 171 

(1.) (^The subject — a phrase,) Simple. — To love exalts. 
To exercise strengthens. To forgive ennobles. To walk 
invigorates. 

Complex and compound. — To see the sun is pleasant. 
To know oneself is the highest wisdom. To soothe thy 
sickness, and to watch thy health, shall be my pleasure. 
To toil for, and yet to lose the reward of virtue, is the hard 
lot of man. 

(2.) (Predicate — a phrase.) Simple. — Coffee is fra- 
grant. Medicine is nauseous. He is a scholar. To err 
is human. Her hope is to return. The lady is in grief. 
To obey is to enjoy. 

Complex and compound. — The present life is not 
wholly prosaic, precise, tame, and finite. To pray is to 
render dianks to God, to adore him, and to supplicate his 
mercy. 

(3.) (Adjective element — a phrase.) Simple.- — The tern- 
pie of Solomon was destroyed. The gates of the convent 
were closed. The bard of Avon sleeps. 

Complex and compound. — Men of tried character 
were found. An observation of the sun in the meridian 
was taken. The reign of William and Mary commenced 
with the glorious revolution of 1688. The tops of Olym- 
pus and Parnassus reached above the clouds. 

(4.) (Objective element — a phrase,) Simple. — They 
hoped to succeed. She desired to write. He strives to 
^xcel. Ada is trying to learn. 

Complex and compound. — The book deserves to be 
icead with great care. I intended to write a full account 
of the affair. He chooses to die and to redeem his friend. 
She is led to engage in calmer pursuits, and to seek for 
gentler employment. 

(5.) (Adverbial element — a phrase.) Simple.— 

(a.) Place, — She came to the city. Anna sat in the 
13 



178 Greene's introduction. 

carriage. Eain falls from the clouds. The lion roars in 
the forest. 

(6.) Thne.—The boat sailed in the morning. The con- 
mention will meet on Tuesday. Come at noon. In the 
morning it flourisheth. 

(c.) Cause. — Ella ran from fear. The inhabitants are 
perishing from famine. The party were travelling for 
pleasure. 

(c?.) Manner. — The messenger came in haste. The 
orator spoke with fluency. The Greeks succeeded by 
stratagem. Emily was delighted with her present. 

Complex and compound miscellaneous. — With 
trembling limbs and faltering steps, he departed from his 
mansion of sorrow\ I have spent my days in darkness 
and error. The commissioners came to examine the 
ground, and to hear the statements of the opposing 
parties. On Monday or Tuesday, the examination will 
commence. Across the lake, through bush and brake, 
resounds the bugle-horn. 

2. Classify, analyze, and parse any of the foregoing ex- 
amples. 

Model. — '^ This ancient city was situated at the head 
of the bay," is a simple declarative sentence. Why ? 
''This ancient city" is the complex, and ''city" the 
simple subject. " Was situated at the head of the 
bay" is the complex, and "was situated" the simple 
predicate. '' City," the subject, is limited by " this" 
an^ ''ancient," two simple adjective elements of the 
first class. The predicate, " was situated," is limited 
by " at the head of the bay," a complex adverbial 
element of the second class, of which "at head" is 
the basis ; "at'' is the preposition, and "head" the 
object; "head" is limited by "the," a simple adjec- 
tive element of the first class, and by " of the bay," 



LESSON EIGHTY-FIRST. 179 

a complex adjective element of the second class ; "of 
bay" is the basis, ''of" the preposition, and ''bay" 
the object, and is limited by ''the" (described as 
above). "At" is a preposition, and shows the rela- 
tion of "head" to "was situated." Eule XIIL 
"Head" is a common noun, third person, sing, num., 
neut. gen., obj. case, and is used as the object of the 
preposition " at." Eule XIV. 

jN'oTE. — The teacher will often employ the brief analyses in these ex- 
amples, using the full Models only when the peculiar structure of phrases 
and clauses is to be explained. 

3. Transform any of the preceding examples — 

(1.) By changing the class of the sentence (interroga- 
tive, imperative, exclamatory). 

(2.) By transposing the subject of No. 1 (1), and in^ 
troducing the sentence by "it." Thus, ''It is pleasant to 
see the sun." 

(3.) By altering any of the second-class elements in 
No. 1 (3) to first-class. Thus, ''Solomon's temple was de- 
stroyed." 

(4.) By transposing the adverbial element in No. 1 (5) 
(a, 6, c, d). Thus, " To the city she came." 

410. General Exercises. 

Analyze and parse the following examples : — 

A distinction ought to be made between fame and true 
honor. 

I would calmly and humbly submit myself to the good 
and blessed will of God. 

Where was it when winds and clouds were its only 
V^isitors ? 

Neither moon nor stars shine upon the wanderer. 

Strong proofs, not a loud noise, produce conviction. 



180 Greene's introduction. 

Not the boys, but the farmer, was in fault. 
From shore to shore, from cliff to cliff, 'twas free. 
The mountains, like huge giants, stand. 

The breezy call of incense-breathing morn, 

The swallow, twittering from the straw-built shed. 

The cock's shrill clarion, or the echoing horn, 
Ko more shall rouse them from their lowly bed. 

COMPLEX SENTENCES. ELEMENTS THIRD CLASS. 

An element of the third class is always a clause 
consisting of a connective and a proposition. 

LESSON LXXXII. 

CONSTRUCTION OF SUBORDINATE CONNECTIVES. 

Rule XV. — Subordinate connectives are 

used to join dissimilar elements. 

Ex. — He that hath jDity on tl\Q poor lendeth to the 
Lord. 

Rem. 1. — Elements are dissimilar when they differ in their nature, 
rank, ox form. See Lessons LXIX. and LXX. 

Rem, 2. — The subordinate connective unites the clause which it intro- 
duces to the word which the clause limits; as, ^' 1 perceive that you need 
assistance." 

411. Exercises. 

1. Construct three oth^r examples like 'each of the fol- 
lowing :* — 

* Simple, complex, and compound elements are here mingled, to afford 
an exercise for the learner in distinguishing and imitating them. 



What is an element of the third class? Give Rule XV. When an» 
elements dissimilar? What does the subordinate connective unite? 



LESSON EIGHT Y-SECOXD. 181 

(1.) (^Subject, — a clause?) That he deceived, became cer- 
tain. Who wrote Junius'^ Letters is uncertain. That their 
poetry was almost uniformly mournful, and that their 
views of nature were dark and dreary, Avill be allowed by 
all who admit the authenticity of Ossian. That we are, 
as yet, only in the rudiments of the great science of edu- 
cation, cannot be questioned. 

(2.) (Attribute, — a clause.) My desire is, that you may 
succeed. His pretence was, that the storm of the pre- 
ceding evening prevented his attendance. Your belief is, 
tiiat the enemy has crossed the country. My proposition 
is, that your son shall return to college, that you shall go 
abroad, and that the house shall be closed during your 
absence. His answer was, that he approved the plan of 
the measure, and that he was confident of its success. 

(3.) {Adjective element, — a clause.) Evils which cannot 
be cured must be endured. He who reads in a proper 
spirit can scarcely read too much. Slaves and savages 
who receive no education are proverbially indolent. A 
cottage which is shaded with trees, and which is situated 
far from the noise and bustle of the city, is a very pleasant 
retreat. That faith which is one, which renews and jus- 
tifies all who possess it, which confessions and formu- 
laries can never adequately express, is the property of all 
alike. 

(4.) (Objective element, — a clause.) Many suppose that 
the planets are inhabited. The insane imagine that they 
alone are sane. We all know how a man of mighty 
genius can impart himself to other minds. Every one 
should feel that his existence stretches beyond the limits 
of this mortal life. He heard that his wife had fallen a 
lingering sacrifice to penury and sorrow; that his children 
had gone to seek their fortunes in distant or unknown 
climes ; and that the grave contained his nearest and most 
valuable friends. 



182 

(5.) {Adverbial element, — a clause, ^"^ They were sitting 
where the branches of a spreading eim protected them 
from the burning rays of the noonday sun. As far as 
the east is from the west, so far has he removed our trans- 
gressions from us. While I Avas musing, the fire burned. 
When two lines cross each other, the opposite angles are 
equal. Ye shall not see me, because I go unto my Father. 
Though he was rich, yet for our sakes he became poor. 
Speak as you think. Happiness is more equally divided 
than some suppose. While the bridegroom tarried, they 
all slumbered and slept. As we grow older, life becomes 
dim in the distance. Yriierever we are, we are not for- 
gotten by a kind Providence. When a few more friends 
have left us, a few more hopes deceived and a few more 
changes mocked us, we shall be brought to the grave, 
and remain in the tomb. He takes us from earth, that 
he may lead us to heaven, that he may refine our nature 
from all its principles of corruption, that he may share 
with us his own immortality, that he may admit us to his 
everlasting habitation, and that he may crown us with his 
eternity. 

2. Classify, analyze, and parse any of the foregoing 
examples. 

Hodel. — "When the wicked are multiplied, trans- 
gression increaseth," is a complex declarative sen- 
tence; complex, because it contains dissimilar clauses. 
— "transgression increaseth" being the principal and 
"when the wicked are multiplied" the subordinate 
clause. "Transgression," the subject of the princi- 
pal clause, is the subject of the sentence; "in- 
creaseth" is the simple and " increaseth when the 
wicked are multiplied" is the complex predicate. 

*5^ Let the learner distinguish those which denote place, time, cause, 
>nd manner. 



LESSON EIGHTY-SECOND. 183 

*^ Increaseth" is limited by " when the wicked are 
multiplied," a complex adverbial element of the 
third class, of which *^ when wicked (more exactly 
*^ persons" understood) are multiplied" is the basis. 
^' Persons" understood is limited by " the" and 
'^wicked;" or ^* wicked" used as a noun is limited 
by "the;" the predicate is not limited. "When" is 
a subordinate connective (conjunctive adverb of 
time), and joins the adverbial clause, which it intro- 
duces, to " increaseth," the predicate of the principal 
clause. Rule XV. It limits " are multiplied," and 
•■' increaseth," according to Rule IX. 

3. Transform any of the foregoing examples: — 

(1.) By altering the subordinate clause to a word or 
phraise, 

(2.) By transposing it. 

(3.) By changing the entire sentence to a declarative, 
interrogative, &c. 

(4.) By making the subordinate into a principal clause. 
Thus, "They were sitting, and the branches of a spread- 
ing elm protected them from the burning rays of the noon- 
day sun." 

(5.) Change examples in No. 1 (1), by introducing the 
sentence with " it." Thus, " It became certain that he 
deceived." 

4. Change any of the following adjective, objective, or 
adverbial elements into clauses, thus converting simple 
into complex sentences : — 

Trees growing at the foot of the mountain are taller 
than those on the summit. A persevering man will over- 
come obstacles. A discontented man cannot be happy. 
i do not remember the time of the lecture. The ancients 
believed the earth to be a vast plain. On our arrival, all 
was bustle and confusion. Thus, "A man who perseveres 
will prosper." 



184 Greene's introduction, 

LESSON LXXXIII. 

COMPOUND SENTENCES ELEMENTS OF THE 

THIRD CLASS. 

A compound sentence is formed by uniting two 
or more principal propositions by either of the 
coordinate conjunctions. 

412. Exercises. 

1. Construct other examples like the following: — 

(1.) {Copulative clauses.^) We shall feel the same revo- 
lution of the seasons, and the same sun and moon will 
guide the course of our year. Modesty is one of the 
chief ornaments of youth ; and it has ever been esteemed 
a presage of rising merit. You know I love country life, 
and here we have it in perfection. 

(2.) {Adversative clauses,) The man was communi- 
cative enough, but nothing was distinct in his mind. A 
clownish air is but a small defect; yet it is enough to 
make a man disagreeable. Pope had perhaps the judg- 
ment of Dryden ; but Dryden certainly wanted the dili- 
gence of Pope. I believe there are few heads capable 
of making Sir Isaac Newton's calculations; but the result 
of them is not diiRcult to be understood by a moderate 
capacity. 

(3.) {Alternative clauses.) We must fight, or our liber- 
ties will be lost. Never utter any profane speeches, nor 
make a jest of any scriptural expressions. Either he 
will hate the one, and love the other, or else he will hold 
to the one, and despise the other. Neither hath this man 
einned, nor his parents. 



How is a compound sentence formed? 



LESSON EIGHTY-FOURTH. 183 

2. Classify, analyze, and parse any of the preceding. 
Model. — "You know I love country life, and here 

we have it in perfection.'' It is a compound decla- 
rative sentence; compound, because it contains simi- 
lar clauses; declarative, because it declares some- 
thing. "You know I love country life" is the first, 
and " here we have it in perfection" is the second 
principal proposition. They are coordinate with 
each other, and are connected by " and," which is 
a copulative coordinate conjunction. Rule XI. 
[Analyze each proposition separately, as a simple 
sentence.] 

3. Transform any of the preceding examples (where 
it can be done) by changing one of the clauses (1) to a 
subordinate clause; (2) to a participial construction. 

Model. — Play with a fool at home, and he will play 
with you abroad, = If you play with a fool at home, 
he will play with you abroad, =: By playing with«a 
fool at home, he will play with you abroad. 



LESSON LXXXIV. 

INFINITIVE AND PARTICIPLE. 

413. In changing a complex to a simple sen- 
tence, we must change the verb of the subordi- 
nate clause to an infinitive or a participle. 
These are then disposed of by the following 
rules : — 

EuLE XVI. — The infinitive has the con- 



When is the subordinate clause changed to the infinitive or a parti- 
»iple? Give Rule XVI. 



186 Greene's introduction. 

struction of the noun^ with the signification an(3 

Umitations of the verh^ and, when dependent, 

is governed by the word which it limits. 

Ex. — To err is human. They desire to travel in a foreign 
country. 

Rem. 1. — The infinitive may be associated with the subject which the 
verb had before the subordinate clause was changed. 

Ex. — We wish that yoii would stay =y/e wish you to stay. 

Or that subject may be dropped, and the infinitive may appeal 
without it. 

Ex. — "We wish that ice might sic/?/ = We wish to stay. 



Special Rule. 

The to of the infinitive is omitted after the 
active voice of bid^ dare^ let^ need^ make^ see, heai\ 
and feel. 

Ex. — I saw him do it. You heard him say it. 

Rule XVII. — Participles have the con- 
struction of adjectives and nouns, and are limited 
like verbs, 

Ex. — He stooping down, and looking in, saw the linen 
clothes lying ; yet went he not in. A habit of sincerity 
in. acknowledging faults is a guard against committing 
them. 

Hem. 1. — The participle, like the infinitive, may be associated with the 
subject which the verb had before the subordinate clause was changea. 
When this subject remains in the nominative case, it is parsed by the 
following special rule : — 

A noun or a pronoun is put in the ncnninative 



Give Rule XVTI. With what may the infinitive be associated ? Give 
Remark I. Give the rule for the nominative absolute. 



LESSON EIGHTY-FOURTH. 187 

absolute^ with a participle^ when its case depends 
upon no other word. 

Ex. — Shame leing lost, all virtue is lost. 

Rem. 2. — The participle, when used as an adjective, assumes the action 
which the verb asserts. When used as a no^in, it is equivalent to the 
infinitive, and may be (1) lohoUy a noun. 

Ex. — It is pleasant to walk at the rising of the sun. 

Or partially so. 

Ex. — We should avoid giving pain to others. 

In the last example, the participle retains some of its verbal cha- 
racter, thereby governing *' pain." 

414. Exercises. 

1. Construct three other examples like each of the 
following : — 

(1.) {InJ, and part. — subject.) Lying is the vice of 
slaves. To steal is base. To forgive is divine. To 
mourn without measure, is folly; not to mourn at all, 
insensibility. Cheating, stealing, swearing, and traducing, 
are all criminal. To deprive me of liberty, to torture me, 
or to imprison me, is not your right. 

(2.) {Inf. and part. — predicate.) The boat is ap- 
proaching. Night is coming. The ceremony was per- 
formed. The boy is to be educated. The boat is to sail 
on Tuesday. The ship was lying at anchor. The great 
object of education is, not to store the mind with know^- 
ledge, but to give activity and vigor to its power. 

(3.) {Inf. and part. — adj. element.) Ages yet to come 
will develop greater improvements in the arts than are 
now^ astonishing mankind. A desire to aid his friend led 
him to encounter every danger and surmount every diiB- 
culty. The setting sun is a beautiful object. Being con- 
vinced of his guilt, we resolved to punish him. 

What is said of the participle used as an adjective? When used as 
a noun ? 



188 Greene's introduction. 

(4.) {Inf. and part. — ohj. element.) The problem has U 
be wrought out. It teaches us to be thankful for all favors 
received, to love each other, and to be united. The deca- 
logue forbids worshipping idols. 

(5.) {Inf, and part. — adv. element.) They ascended the 
Kile to discover its source. I have brought this flower to 
show you the peculiar structure of its petals. The legis- 
lature appointed commissioners to make a geological sur- 
vey of the state. Hope " springs exulting on triumphant 
wing." 

2. Transform, analyze, and parse the preceding exam- 
ples. Thus, ^' That one should steals is base." 

4:15. General Exercise. 

Analyze and parse the following examples :— 
While there is life, there is hope. 
Whatever is, is right. 
She hath done what she could. 
The redbreast loves to build and w^arble there. 
Let not Ambition mock their useful toil. 
The storm rising, Julia hastened home. 

Roll on, thou deep and dark blue ocean, roll; — 
Ten thousand fleets sweep over thee in vain. 

Then, kneeling down, to Heaven's eternal King 
The saint, the husband, and the father prays ; 

Hope " springs exulting on triumphant wing," 
That thus they all shall meet in future days. 

There is a glorious city in the sea ; 

The tide is in the broad, the narrow^ streets, 

Ebbing and flowing ; — and the salt sea-weed 

Clings to the marble of her palaces. 

No track of men, no footsteps to and fro, 

Lead to her gates — the path lies o'er the sea. 



LESSON EIGHTY-FIFTH, 189 

Inspiring thought of rapture yet to be ! 
The tears of love were hopeless, but for thee. 
If in that frame no deathless spirit dwell, 
If that faint murmur be the last farewell, 
If fate unite the faithful but to part, 
Why is their memory sacred to the heart ? 



PROSODY^ 



LESSON LXXXV. 

VERSE^ FEET, SCANNING. 

416. Prosody treats of the laws of versifica- 
tion. 

417. Versification is the art of composing 
poetic verse. 

418. A verse is a succession of accented and 
unaccented syllables^ constituting a line of poetry. 

419. Verse is of two kinds, rhyme and blank 
verse. 

420. Rliyme is the correspondence of sound 
in the last syllables of tAvo or more lines. 

421. Blank verse is without rhyme. 



Of what docs Prosody treat? What is a verse? How many kinds? 
IVhat constitutes rhyme ? What is blank verse ? 



190 geeene's introduction, 

422. Afoot is two or more syllables^ combined 
according to accent. 

423. The principal feet^ in English^ are the 
iambuis, the trocliee^ the anapsest, and the 
dactyl. 

424. The iambusi consists of a short and a 
long syllable. 

Ex. — Invite, devote, benign. 

425. The trochee consists of a long and a 
short syllable. 

Ex. — Grateful, grievous. 

426. The anapaest consists of two short syl- 
lables and one long one. 

Ex. — Incomplete, condescend. 

427. The dactyl consists of one long syllable 
and two short ones. 

Ex. — Positive, loneliness. 

428. iScanumg consists in dividing a verse 
into the feet which compose it. 

429. Examples and Exercises, 

IAMBIC VERSE. 

1. Iambic of one foot : — 

ThSy go 
To sow. 

What is a foot? What are the principal feet in English? Of what 
does the iambus consist? The trochee? The anapaest? The dactyl? 
What is meant by scanning ? 



LESSON EIGHTY-SIXTH. 19] 

2. lamhic of two feet : — 

To me I thS rose 
No longer glows. 

3. Iambic of three feet : — 

N6 roy- | al pomp | adorns 
This King of righteousness. 

4. Iambic of four feet : — 

And cold- | ^r still ] th^ winds | did blow, 
And darker hours of night came on. 

5. Iambic of five feet, or pentameter : — 

On rift- I ^d rocks, | the drag- | on's late | ^bodes^ 
The green reed trembles and the bulrush nods. 

6. Iambic of six feet, or hexameter : 

His heart | is sad, | his hope | is gone, | his light | is 

passed ; 
He sits and mourns in silent grief the lingering day. 

7. Iambic of seven feet, or heptameter : — 

The lof- I ty hill, | thS hum- | bl^ lawn, | with count- | l^ss 

beau I ties shine 
The silent grove, the solemn shade, proclaim thy power 

divine. 

LESSON LXXXVI. 

430. Iambic of five feet is called heroic verse; 
that of six feet is called Alexandrine. 

431. Iambic of seven feet is commonly divided 
into two lines, — the first containing four feet, the 

What is iambic of five feet called ? Of six feet. 



192 

second three. This is called common metre; 

as, 

The lofty hill, the humble lawn, 
With countless beauties shine ; 

The silent grove, the solemn shade, 
Proclaim thy power divine. 

432. In long metre^ each line has four 
iambic feet ; in short metre^ the firsts second, 
and fourth lines contain three iambic feet, the 
third four. 

433. Each Species of iambic verse may have 
one additional short syllable. 

434. Examples and Exercise. 

Upon I a moun | tain. 

TROCHAIC VERSE. 

1. Trochaic of one foot : — 

Changing. 
Eanging. 

2. Trochaic of two feet :— 

Fancy | viewing, 
Joys ensuing. 

3. Trochaic of three feet : — 

Go where | glory | waits thge; 
But when fame elates thee. 

4. Trochaic of four feet : — 

R5und a | holy ] calm dif- | fusing, 
Love of peace and lonely musing. 



Explain common metre, long metre, and short metre. 



LESSON EIGHTY-SEVENTH. 193 

5. Trochaic of jive feet: — 

All that I walk 5n | foot 6r | ride in | charidts, 
All that dwell in palaces or garrets. 

6. Trochaic of six feet : — 

l>n a I mountS^in | stretched, bS- | neath a | hoary | willow, 
Lay a shepherd swain, and viewed the rolling billow. 



LESSON LXXXVIL 

435. In trochaic verse, the accent is placed 
upon the odd syllables ; in iambic, on the even. 

436. Trochaic verse may take an additional 
k)ng syllable. 

437. Examples and Exercise. 

Idl^ I aftSr I dinner, ( in his | chair, 
Sat a farmer, ruddy, fat, and fair. 

ANAP^STIG VERSE. 

1. Anapcestic of one foot : — 

Biit in vain 
They complain. 

2. Anapcestic of ttvo feet : — 

Wh^re thS sun | loves t6 pause 
With so fond a delay. 



Where is the accent placed in trochaic verse ? 
V4 



194 GREENE'S INTRODUCTION. 

3. Anapcestic of three feet: — 

Fr6m the cen- | tr^ all round | to th^ sea 
I'm lord of the fo^Yl and the brute. 

4 Anapcestic of four feet : — 

At th^ close I of th^ day, | wh^n the ham- | ISt is still, 

And mortals the s\Yeets of forgetfulness prove. 

LESSON LXXXVIII. 

438. In anapaestic verse, the accent falls on 
every third syllable. The first foot of an ana- 
paestic verse may be an iambus. 

439. Examples and Exercise. 

And mor- j tals th^ sweats | 6f f6rget- ] faints pr5ve. 

DACTYLIC VERSE. 

1. Dactylic of one foot : — 

Cheerfully, 
Fearfully. 

2. Dactylic of two feet : — 

Free fr5m ^nx- j i^ty, 
Care and satiety. 

3. Dactylic of three feet : — 

Wearing a- | way in his | youthfuln^, 
Loveliness, beauty, and truthfulness. 

4 Dactylic of four feet — 

Boys will an- | ticip^te, | lavish, ^nd | dissipate 
All that your busy pate hoarded with care. 



Where does the accent fall in ai^apsBstic verse? 



LESSON EIGHTY-NINTH. 195 

Few poems are perfectly regular in their feet. The different kinds ol 
feet are often mingled in the same verse. Thus : — 

I come, I I come; | y^ h&ve called | mS long; 

I come I (5'er the moun- | tains, with light | and song. 

Note. — For exercises in scanning, let the pupil apply these rules ts» 
different verses in his reading lessons. 



PUNCTUATION 



LESSON LXXXIX. 

440. Punctuation is the art of dividing 
written composition by means of points. 

441. The principal points are the comma (,), 
the isemicolou (;), the colon (:), the das^ta 
( — ), the parenthesis (), the period (.), the 
interrogation point (?), the exclamation 
point (!). 

442. A point should not be used when two 
parts are simple^ arranged in their natural order ^ 
and are closely connected, 

443. A point should be used at the end of every 
sentence,^ — to separate the members of a loose sen- 
tence, — to separate the elements of a sentence 
when they form a series of more than two 
terms, ^ — when loosely connected^ when trans- 

What is punctuation ? Name the principal points. Whep should a 
point not be used ? When should a point be used ? 



196 Greene's inteoduction, 

posed^ when greatly extended^ when a word is 
omitted^ or when the meaning would be other^ 
wise obscure. 

The comma, semicolon, colon, dash, and parenthesis are used to sepa- 
rate the parts of a sentence ; the period, interrogation point, and exclfc- 
Baation point are used to separate entire sentences. 



THE COMMA. 

444. The comma is used principally in sepa- 
rating the elements of simple or complex sen- 
tences. 

445. The comma should be used according to 
the following rules : — 

Rule I. — All the terms of a coordinate series, 
except the final one^, should be separated by the 
comma. 

A coordinate series consists of more than two terms. 

Ex. — Peaches, pears and grapes are excellent fruit. 
Rule II. — The terms of a coordinate 
couplet should be separated — 

A couplet means two terms. 

1. When the conjunction is omitted. 

2. When the terms are identical or equivalent. 

3. When the terms are contrasted or emphati- 
cally distinguished. 

4. When either is limited by an element not 
applicable to the other. 

When is the comma used ? Give Rule I. Rule 11. 



LESSON EIGHTY-NINTH. 197 

5. When one or both are so limited as to be 
considerably extended. 

Ex. — 1. The sweetest, wildest land on earth. 2. Verily^ 
verily, I say unto you. We sailed into an inlet, or harbor, 
3. 'Tis certain he can write, and cipher too. The fellow was 
wicked, not weak. 4. Undue susceptibility, and the prepon- 
derance of mere feeling over thoughtfulness, may mislead. 
5. Integrity of understanding, and nicety of discernment, 
were not allotted in a less proportion to Dry den than to Pope. 

Rule IIL — A siubordiiiate element should 
be separated from its principal — 

1. When an adjective elaiii§ie or expres- 
sion is used to explain and not to restrict the 
meaning of the principal. 

Ex- — We venerate the name of Washington, who was 
styled the father of his country. Moses, the servant of the 
Lord, died there in the land of Moab. Passion is like a 
whirlwind, prostrating indiscriminately whatever comes in 
its way. 

2. When an objective elanse or expres- 
sion is transposed^ or separated by an inter- 
vening expression. 

Ex. — The impending storm which threatened us, we all 
escaped. For all that, said the pendulum, it is very dark 
here. 

3. When an adverbial elause or express 

sion is transposed^ loosely connected^ parenthetic^ 
or independent. 

Ex.- — On the contrary, the truth lies here. Again, the 
q^uestion must be viewed practically. In fine, the result 

Give Rule Til. 



198 GREENERS INTRODUCTION. 

proves the truth of the proposition. It will appear, with* 
out doubt y that his intentions were honest. To confess thk 
truth, I. had thought but little of the matter. 

Rule IV. — The two principal elements 

are separated by the comma — 

1. When the subject nominative is a long 
clause^ or is a noun or a pronoun so modified as 
to give an extended complex subject, or when 
the modified subject ends with a verb or any 
word which would make the meaning doubtful 
without a point. 

Ex. — That two little wires stretched from city to city 
should be the means of throwing the whole nation instantly 
into commotion, is truly marvellous. He that places him- 
self neither higher nor lower than he ought to do, exercises 
the truest humility. 

Rule V. — -Independent and parentlietical 

expressions should be separated from the rest of 
the sentence by a comma. 

Ex. — Gady a troop shall overcome him. Yet once more, 
ye laurels. Thou knowest, come what may, that the light 
of truth cannot be put out. 

446. Exercise. 

Punctuate the following examples : — 
Go where a man may home is the centre to which the 
heart turns. 

Here comes his body mourned by Mark Antony. 
Nature through all her works delights in variety. 
He being dead yet speaketh. 

Give Rule IV. Rule V. 



LESSON EIGHTY-NINTH. 199 

I thank thee Roderick for the word. 
Accordingly the chronicles of the middle ages teem with 
crime. 

His story is in short the tale of an impostor. 
At the base of the mountain we dismounted from our 
borses. 

All nature is but art unknown to thee 

All chance direction which thou canst not see. 

We visited Abbotsford, the home of Sir Walter Scott. 

An indiscriminate reading of novels and romances is 
exceedingly injurious to the young. 

In the contemplation of these august teachers ©f man^ 
kind we are filled with conflicting emotions. 

That a peculiar state of the mere particles of the brain 
should be followed by a change of the state of the sentient 
mind is truly wonderful. 

The ancients separated the corn from the ear by caus^ 
ing an ox to trample on the sheaves. 

General Washington the first President of the United 
States was a true patriot a genuine lover of his country. 

The more highly we cultivate our minds here the better 
shall we be prepared for the nobler pursuits of the next 
stages of our existence. 

See through this air this ocean and this earth 
All matter quick and bursting into birth. 

Speak as you mean do as you profess and perform what 
you promise. 

You are a parent or a child a brother or a sister a hus- 
band or a wife a friend or an associate of some kindred 
joul. 

Has God provided for the poor a coarser earth a thinner 
•ir a paler sky ? 

Industry honesty and temperance are essential to hap- 
piness. 



200 Greene's introduction. 

Lend lend your wings. 

Woe woe to the rider that tramples them down. 
It is a star or some distant light. 

The storms of many winters and the scorching heati 
>f many summers have visited that ruin. 

Contrasted faults through all their manners reign, 
Though poor luxurious ; though submissive vain ; 
Though grave yet trifling; zealous yet untrue; 
And even in penance planning sins anew. 

THE COLON AND SEMICOLON. 

447. The colon and semicolon are used 

chiefly to separate the members of a loose sentence. 

Ex. — Make a proper use of your time ; for the loss of it 
can never be regained. 

Rem. 1. — The colon is now but little used, except before examples fol- 
lowing the expressions as follows^ the following examples, in these words; 
as, " Perform the following exercises :'* 

Rem. 2. — When, in a complex sentence, several subordinate clauses 
are united to each other, having a common dependence upon the principal 
clause, they are separated by the semicolon ; as, "Philosophers assert that 
Nature is unlimited in her operations j that she has inexhaustible trea- 
sures in reserve; that knowledge will always be pro-gressive ; and that 
future generations will continue to make discoveries." 

448. Exercise. 

Insert the comma, the semicolon, and the colon where 
they are required in the following examples : 

Never value yourself upon your fortune for this is the 
sign of a weak mind. 

Pope had perhaps the judgment of Dry den but Dryden 
certainly wanted the diligence of Pope. 

What is said of the colon and semicolon ? Give Remark I. Remark II. 



LESSON EIGHTY-NINTH. 201 

The great tendency and purpose of poetry is to carry 
the mind above and beyond the beaten dusty weary walks 
of ordinary life to lift it into a purer element and to breathe 
into it more profound and generous emotion. 

Write on your slate the following example Mary and 
•John will go. 

The great, the wise and the good were there. 

Endeavor to excel much may be accomplished by per- 
severance. 

THE DASH AND PARENTHESIS. 

449. The dash is used where there is a signi- 
ficant pause, an unexpected transition in the sen- 
tence, or where a sentence is left unfinished. 

Ex. — He sometimes counsel takes, and sometimes — 
snuff; But I must first . 

Rem. — The dash is now frequently used instead of the parenthesis f 
as, "The colonists — such is human nature — desired to burn the town in 
which they had been so wretched." 

450. The pa]*enthe!§ii!§i is used to enclose a 
part of a sentence not necessary to the construc- 
tion, but in some way explanatory of the meaning 
of the sentence. 

Ex.- — Consider (and may the consideration sink deep 
into your hearts !) the fatal consequences of a wicked life. 

451. Exercise. 

Insert the dash and the parenthesis where they are re- 
quired in the following examples : — 

Horror burst the bands of sleep ; but my feelings 

What is said of the dash and parenthesis? 



202 geeene's introductiox. 

>yords are too weak, too powerless to express them. The 
Egyptian style of architecture see Dr. Pocock, not his 
discourses but his prints was apparently the mother of the 
Greek. While they wished to please, and why should they 
not wish it, they disdained dishonorable means. If thou 
art he, so much respected once but, O, how fallen how 
degraded 

THE PERIOD. 

452. The period is used at the close of a de- 
clarative or an imperative sentence. It is also 
used to denote an abbreviation. 

Examples. 

Knowledge is not only pleasant, but useful and honor- 
able. 

Let what you have gained be an impulse to something 
higher. 

If you will, you can rise. The age of MSS. is, in some 
instances, known by dates inserted in them. 

453. Exercise. 

Insert the period where it is required in the following 
examples : — 

Truth is the basis of every virtue 

It is the voice of reason Let its precepts be religiously 
obeyed Never transgress its limits Abhor a falsehood 

I would say to the people. You cannot, without guilt 
and disgrace, stop where you are 

The oration was delivered by J L Thompson, Esq 

The event occurred B C 1001 



What is said of the period? 



LESSON EIGHTY-NINTH, 203 

To R H Dana, Jun Esq , the well-known author of 
"Two Years before the Mast," the community are greatly 
indebted 

But the seasons^ are not alike in all countries of the 
eame region, for the reasons already given See Chap VI 
§2,1[4,p330 



INTERROGATION POINT. 

454. An interrogation point is used at the 
close of an interrogative sentence. 
Ex. — Who comes there? 

Rem. — When an interrogative sentence is used as a subordinate 
clause, — 

(1.) The interrogation point is employed when the clause is quoted 
directly. 

Ex. — He said, Why do you weep? 

(2.) The interrogation point is not employed where the clause la 
quoted indirectly. 

Ex. — He asked me why I wept. 



EXCLAMATION POINT. 

455. A exclamation point is used at the 
close of an exclamatory sentence. 
Ex. — How unsearchable are his ways ! 

Rem. — An exclamation point is often used within a sentence, after an 
exclamatory expression or an interjection. 

Ex. — Jove Supreme! whom men and gods revere! 0! let soft 
pity touch the mind ! 

How is the interrogation point used ? The exclamation point ? What 
tern ark? 



204 Greene's intkoduction* 

456. Exercises. 

Insert interrogation and exclamation points where they 
are required in the following examples : — 

Daughter of Faith awake arise illume the dread un- 
know^n the chaos of the tomb 

Whither shall I turn Wretch that I am To what 
place shall I betake myself 

O Pascal thou wert pure in heart in this world, and 
now thou art in full sight of God 

Apostles of liberty what millions attest the authenticity 
of your mission 

To purchase heaven has gold the power 

Who shall separate us from the love of Christ • 

Punctuate correctly in all respects the following exam- 
ples : — 

What a piece of work is man How noble in reason 
how infinite in faculties in form and moving how express 
and admirable in action how like an angel in apprehen- 
sion how like a God 

Dr H Marsh F E S &c Bishop of Peterborough b 1757 
d 1839. 

As the pupil is often obliged to bend all his faculties 
to the task before him and tears sometimes fall on the 
page he is studying so it is in the school of God's provi- 
dence there are hard lessons in it 

OTHER MARKS USED IN WRITING. 

457. Brackets ([]) are used when a word 
or phrase is introduced for explanation or con- 
nection. 

Ex. — He [the teacher] thus explained the difficulty. 

. . ._y 

How are brackets used ? 



LESSON EIGHTY-NINTH. 200 

458. The apostrophe (') is used to denote 
either the possessive case^, or the omission of a 
letter. 

Ex. — John's; o'er. 

459. The quotation marks {"'') are used 
to include a passage taken verbatim from some 
other author. 

Ex. — He said, " I relinquish my claim." 

460. The asterisk (*), the obelisk (f ), the 
double dagger (J), and the parallels (|1) are 
used to refer to notes in the margin or at the 
bottom of the page. Sometimes the section 
(§) and the paragraph (^) are used. Also, 
small letters, or figures, which refer to notes at 
the foot of the page. 

461. The caret (^) is used in writing to show 
that some letter, word, or phrase has been omitted. 

Ex. — The pencil lies Z the table. 

462. The hyphen (-) is used to separate the 
parts of a compound word. 

Ex. — Book-binder. 

When placed at the end of a line, it shows 
that a word is divided, the remaining part being 
carried to the next line. 

463. The ellipsis (^**) ( ) is used to 

denote the omission of certain letters or words. 

Ex.— C***ll; K -g. 

How is the apostrophe used ? Quotation marks ? Asterisk ? Obelisk, 
&c.? Caret? Hyphen? Ellipsis? 



206 GREENERS INTRODUCTION. 

464. The brace -( ^^^™^^ts a number of words 

I with one common term. 

465. The index (l|^=^) pomts to some re- 
markable passage. 

466. The section (§) denotes the divisions 
of a treatise. 

467. The paragrapli (^) denotes the begin- 
ning of a new subject. 

468. The vowel marks are the diaeresis ("), 
placed over the second of two vowels which are 
separated; the long sound {'^)^ placed over a long 
vowel; the breve or sliort sound ("), placed 
over a short vowel; and accents, grave (')^ 
acute ('), and circnmflex C'). 

Rem. — The best practical exercises on all these marks and points will 
be given by the teacher. Let the pupil be required to construct sen- 
tences involving the use of them ; or let the teacher read, from some 
book, any passage which demands their use, and let the class insert them 
in their proper places. 

469. Rules for the Use of Capital Letters. 

1. The first word of every entire sentence 
should begin with a capital. 

Ex. — Jesus wept. 

2. Titles of honor and respect, and every 
proper name, and every adjective derived from 
a proper name, should begin with a capital. 

Ex. — His Highness ; Boston ; Bostonian. 

How is the brace used ? Index ? Section ? Paragraph ? What are 
the vowel marks ? Give the rules for the use of capital letters. 



LESSON EIGHTY-NINTH. 207 

3. Every appellation of the Deity should 
begin with a capital. 

Ex. — God ; Jehovah ; the Eternal. 

4. The first word of every line of poetry 
should begin with a capital. 

5. The words "I'' and "0' should always 
be capitals. 

6. Any important word may begin with a 
capital. 

7. The principal words in the title of books 
should begin with capitals. 

Ex. — Pope's Essay on Man. 

8. The first word of a direct quotation, when 
the quotation forms a complete sentence of itself, 
should begin with a capital. 

Ex. — He saith unto him, Feed my sheep. 



GENERAL EXERCISES. 



FALSE SYNTAX. 

The following exercises in false syntax may be referred to, and used, as 
additional examples, at the time the principles and rules which they illus- 
trate are studied, or they may be reserved for miscellaneous exercises, to 
refresh the memory of the pupil after he has concluded the study of the 
main part of the book : — 

1. Exercise, Rule I. and Caution. 

You and me will go together. 

Model. — *' You and me will go together" is incorrect, 

because the objective pronoun me is made the subject 

of the verb will go; but, by Caution I., the objective 

should never be used as the subject of a finite verb. 

Correct, " You and I will go together.'' 

Him that is studious will improve. She found the place 

sooner than us. Them that seek wisdom will be wise. 

They are people whom one would think might be trusted. 

Who told you the story ? Him and her. I know it a» 

well as him or her. Who saw the eclipse ? Us. Them 

are the ones. My brother is a much better singer than 

him. We are not so much to "be blamed as him that upset 

the boat. Who came in at the door ? Me. Scotland and 

thee did each in other live. Avoid whomsoever is in a 

passion. There were present only him and me. You are 

in fault, and not me. I know not whom are expected. 

Us boys are forming a base-ball club. Him and me 
are going to town this afternoon. Mary can walk faster 
than me. I will promote him whom is most deserving. 
Whom do you think called on me this morning? Not 
always does the world applaud him who is most deserving 
of praise; but him who is most successful receives the 

208 



FALSE SYNTAX. 209 

homage of men. Thee must not forget my advice. She 
is a lady whom I know will interest you. 



2. Exercise, Rule II. and Caution. 

Model. — " It is her" is incorrect, because the attribute 

"her" is in the objective case; but, by Caution I., 

Rule IL, the attribute should never be in the objective 

case. Corrected, " It is she." 

Is it me ? No ; but it is him. Whom do you think it 

is ? It may have been her. I think it is them. It was 

me who told you. It is not us who are in fault. If I were 

her, I would talk less. Whom do men say that I am ? 

It is us who suffer by your carelessness. It is not her, but 

him, you should chide. 

In answering questions, employ the noun or pronoun as if the answer 
were complete; thus^ '^Who is it?'* I; i.e. It is /, not me. The attri- 
bute after the infinitive or a participle takes the case of the preceding 
noun or pronoun, except when that is in the possessive (see Eng. Gram., 
175, I {b} ). Thus, " 1 took it to be him,"— not '^ he." " I never thought 
of its being he," — not " him.*' 

I cannot believe it to be he. Whom do you think it is? 
Him. Was it her that came last evening ? Yes ; her. 
It was George that answered her, not me. I had no sus- 
picion of its being them. They were not aware of its 
being me till we left the hall. They were a long time in 
doubt whom he might prove to be. It was me who first 
found w^hom it was. I was sure of its being her from the 
beginning. 

3. Exercise, Rule III. and Cautions, 

Let the pupil rmitate the preceding models. 

Peace and happiness are by no means granted to the 
rich alone ; yet it is supposed by many to depend upon 
wealth. The president or secretary will favor us with 

14 



210 _ Greene's introduction. 

their presence. Many words they darken speech. That 
girl she is very ignorant. The king he is very angry. 
The teacher approving the plan, he immediately adopted 
it. Whom when they had washed, they laid her in aii 
upper chamber. What he said, he is sorry for it. Let 
each scholar who thinks so raise their hands. A person 
can content themselves on small means. Any one which 
chooses can find constant employment for themselves. 
Rebecca took goodly raiment, and put them on Jacob. 
Can any one be sure that they are not deceived ? A hawk 
caught a hen and eat her in her own nest. A purse was 
lost in the street which contained a large sum of money. 
Arthur is the boy which found the fan, and Mary is the 
girl which lost it. This is the dog who saved the boy 
which fell from the wharf. There was a certain house- 
holder which planted a vineyard. The lady which we 
saw was highly educated. He has two brothers, which 
are older than me. The judge which pronounced the sen- 
tence was an upright man. Those which desire to be 
happy should do that which is right. Who did you intro- 
duce me to ? Who did he marry ? Who shall we send 
for the paper ? If any of you have aught to say against 
this man, let them now speak. I paid for the molasses, 
and the grocer said he would send them immediately. 
Whom of you can bear to encourage such disorder ? Each . 
of you may choose for themselves. 

If any one calls, tell them I am at home. England ex- 
pects every man to do their duty. Please examine my 
watch and see what ails her. Now you have heard the 
news, what do you think of them ? I wish you would 
sharpen my scissors, it don't cut at all. I don't like to 
study optics, they are so difficult. James has the measles^ 
but he has them very light. Neither the Greek nor the 
Roman had cooking-stoves in their houses. Every work- 
man must bring their tools. When a rat is driven intc; 



FALSE SYNTAX. 211 

a corner, they ^vill often turn and fight furiously. Milo 
began to lift the ox when he was a calf. 



L Exercise, Rule IT. and Cautions. 

Correct by models similar to the preceding. 

Where was you this morning when I called ? He dare 
you to do it. They w'as unwilling to go. Relatives agrees 
with their antecedents. There's ten of us going. Was 
you certain of it ? We was allow^ed the privilege. Cir- 
cumstances alters cases. Has those books been sent home? 
The committee has accepted their appointment. The ma- 
jority was disposed to adopt the measure which they at 
first opposed. Blessed is the people that know the joyful 
sound. The fleet were seen sailing up the channel, where 
afterwards it anchored. The peasantry goes barefoot w^ith- 
out endangering their health. The public is requested 
to attend for their own benefit. The church have no 
power to adopt the measure which it advocates. Thinks 
I to myself, I'll do it. Yes, says I, we'll go together. 
Oh, dear me, says I (as vulgarly contracted, " Oh, dear me, 
suz''). The derivation of these w^ords are uncertain. The 
story, with all its additions, were believed. The increase 
of his resources render the change necessary. The number 
of applicants increase. The general, with all his soldiers, 
were taken. The sale of the goods take place to-morrow. 
The hope of retrieving his losses increase his diligence. I 
seen him when he done it. Some one has broke my pencil. 
Tell them to set still. She laid down by the fire. He 
soon begun to be weary of the employment. I am going 
to lay down. Mary has w-rote a letter. I see him when 
he went. Ain't it true? We ain't going this evening. 
He has drank too much. The tree has fell. You have 
not did as I told you. John has stole the knife. They 
are going to our house next week. He give me a great 



212 Greene's introduction. 

many books. He knowed his lesson better than Henry. 
They had sang very well. I have lain your book on the 
shelf. Will you sit the pitcher on the table, and let it 
set there? The ship lays in the harbor. I done my sumg 
first. 

There is six cents to pay you for your trouble, my little 
man. Why did you say you was coming? There was 
four of us went a fishing. *' Spare Hours'' were written 
by Dr. John Brown. This fashion is one of the most 
foolish that ever was imposed on us. A band of robbers 
were captured by means of a little negro boy. Forest 
after forest fall before the axe of the white man. Not a 
feature, not a muscle, were seen to move. The night was 
dark ; neither moon nor star were visible. There was no 
data given. The ladder was forty foot long. There have 
been quite an increase in the receipt of butter. Nearly 
six thousand head of cattle was brought to New York 
market last week. Many distinguished people w^as pres- 
ent. The mob were composed of the worst characters 
in the city. There seems to be no good reasons for re- 
fusing. Three months' probation are enough to decide it. 
He dare not touch a hair of Catiline. 



6. Exercise, Rule T., Specific Rule (2), and Cautions. 

He found a acorn in the w^oods. He was a honorable 
man. It is an wonderful invention. He is an younger 
man than we thought. She showed an uniform adherence 
to truth. This is an hard saying. 

I do not like remarks of these kind. Those sort of people 
are very disagreeable. Will you buy six pair of boots ? 
I have bought eight foot of wood. It cost a thousand 
pound. The lot is fifty foot in width. The water is six 
fathom deep. We walked three mile in a short time. He 
ordered ten ton of coal. 



FALSE SYNTAX. 213 

I found them books on the table. Which of them 
scholars recite the best? Go and tell them boys to come 
here. Ask them children to bring them apples here. 

She dresses neat. The time passed very quick. The 
ship glides smooth over the water. The stream flows 
silent on. It is not such a great distance as I thought it 
was. He behaved much wiser than the others. Mary 
speaks French very fluent. I am exceeding sorry to hear 
such tidings. 

Caution I. — Avoid the use of the superlative degree when two objects 
are compared, or of the comparative when more than two are compared. 
Say, '' The iviser of the two," — not ^' The loisest of the two •/' " The wisest 
of them all," — not '' The lyrser of them all." 

Caution II. — Avoid the use of double comparatives and superlatives. 
Say, '^ This is the unkmdest cut of all," — not '^ the most unkindest cut 
of all." 

Caution III. — Avoid the use of the article before a title or name used 
merely as a word. Say, ''He is called captain," — not ''the captain." 

Caution IV. — Avoid the use of the article before the second nottn, 
when the same object is compared in two different capacities. Say, ''He 
is a better teacher than poet" — not " than a poet." 

He was the larger of them all. He w^as the oldest of 
the two brothers. He preferred the latter of the three. 
Which is the oldest of the two ? John is the wisest of the 
two. 

After the most straitest sect of our religion I lived a 
Pharisee. This was the most unkindest cut of all. The 
rose is most fairest of all flowers. The chief of the Arabian 
tribes is styled the sheik. The chief magistrate is called 
the emperor. He was an abler financier than a negotiator. 

You cannot mix the oil and the water. The imagina- 
tion is necessary to the poet. The fire is a useful servant^ 
but a hard master, to a man. A pen is mightier than a 
sword. A lion is sometimes called a king of beasts. The 
time and the tide wait for no man. He examined every 
phenomena with the eye of a philosopher. He was much 



214 Greene's introductiox. 

pleased with these good news. Bring me a thimble and 
scissors. The grizzly bear, as well as buffalo, are natives 
of ]S"orth America. The ship displayed a red and white 
signal, and we distinctly saw them both. The elephant 
has a powerful and a flexible trunk, which he always 
carries with him on a journey. I cannot buy, for I have 
a little money. I could buy it if I chose ; for I have little 
money yet. The carpenter forgot to bring his ten-feet 
pole. I counted thirteen sails of vessels lying at anchor 
in the stream. The apple tastes sweetly. Industry and 
Frugality are Fortune's servants : this acquires wealth, 
that saves it. Just taste of those molasses. 

I bought an Andrew's and a Stoddard's Latin Grammar, 
and left it in the book-store. What sort of an animal is a 
mink ? It is a kind of a quadruped. We were charmed 
with Everett, the orator, the statesman, and the diplo- 
matist. One would think him a better pupil than a 
teacher. At the North and South Poles the latitude is 
90^, and longitude from 0"^ to 180"^. Let us honor our 
flag, — the red, the white, and the blue. The administra- 
tion of Washington and establishment of the government 
formed an important era in our history. He did not de- 
mand the principal, but interest. He delivered the ad- 
dress clear and distinct. How do you do ? I am some 
better ; my health is tolerable good. He rode past so 
quick I scarce saw him. You do not treat me polite. 
The bear had not been fed for two days, and he began to 
growl savage. How did Walter perform his part ? Very 
good. 

6. Exercise, Rule TI. 

I am going to see my friends in the country, they that 
we visited last summer. Washington will be remembered 
by our posterity as him who was the father of his country. 



FALSE SYNTAX. 215 

The Echo Song was sung by Jenny Lind, she who de- 
lighted the whole country. 

He is writing the life of Cromwell, — not the Protector, 
but he who was the friend and pupil of Wolsey, and after- 
wards minister of Henry VIII. He treats me ill, — -I, who 
would so gladly serve him. 

7. Exercise, Rule Til. and Caution. 

On Lindens hills of blood-stained snow. It was the 
grand sultans palace. The nations hopes were blasted. 
Next Mars, Piazzis orb, is seen. It is against the laws 
of Plutos empire. His brothers offence is not his. Midst 
glorys glance and victorys thunder-shout. The mans story 
was false. If of Dry dens fire the blaze is brighter, of 
Popes the heat is more regular and constant. 

This book is your's. I listened to it's song. The slate 
is hisn. This map is theirn. This knife is mine, and not 
yourn. That handkerchief is hern. These sheep are 
ourn. Will you drive yourn out of the pasture ? Our's 
is a pleasant task. 

After a pleasant two hours sail, we went ashore to 
lunch. Please call at Little's and Brown's book-store and 
get me the last Galaxy. His friends opposed him going 
into the army. Which is the neatest boot, your boot or 
my boot? This is a book of my friend. The elephant 
and beaver's instinct approaches closely to reason. James 
sister thinks too much of dress. I ./ouid like to see that 
saucy servant of your's. That is a robin, thrush, or spar- 
row's nest. 

What do you think of him attending the concert ? 

NoTE.T-This is incorrect^ if the attention is to be directed mainly to 
attendance upon the concert. Observe here that the governing noun is ^ 
participial noun. 

He is opposed to us going to the opera. We were sure 



216 Greene's introdixtiox. 

of him paying the money. James insists upon me giving 
him lessons in music. 



8. Exercise^ Rule Till, and Caution. 

I dislike she. Why does he always interrupt Charles 
and I ? He and she I know, but I am not acquainted 
with their cousin. He who stole the melons you should 
punish, not I who had nothing to do with them. They 
that help others, all will respect. 



9. Exercise, Rule IX. and Cautions. 

Be careful to avoid the use of an adverb when the quality of an object, 
not the manner of an action, is to be expressed. (See Cautions II. and 
III., Eng. Gram., p. 240.) 

Avoid the use of no, to express negation with a verb or a participle. 

I will not take that course by no means. I did not like 
neither his principles nor his practice. I cannot write no 
more. Nothing never can justify such conduct. He will 
never be no better. IS'either he nor no one else believes 
the story. I never go nowheres. I am resolved not to 
trust him, neither now, nor any other time. No one 
knows neither the causes nor the effects of such influences. 

His expressions sounded harshly. Satin feels very 
smoothly. Give "'-^^ a soon and decisive answ^er. Such 
incidents are of seldom occurrence. The then emperor 
issued a decree. Did he arrive safely and sound? She 
seemed beautifully. 

Know^ now whether this be thy son's coat, or no ? Tell 
me whether I shall do it, or no. I w^ill ascertain if it is 
true, or no. 

He said how he believed it. She told me how that she 
would come if she could. He remarked how time was 
\raluable. 



FALSE SYNTAX. 



217 



I will send thee far from hence to the Gentiles. George 
wrote a description of our picnic where he mentions all of 
us under assumed names. I never got no favors in the 
army. It isn't good for pear-trees nor apple-trees to trim 
them often. He delivered the address clear and distinct. 



10. Exercise, Rule X. 

Oh, unfortunate me ! why did I not heed your counsel ? 
Me excepted, they were all members of the club. Him 
guiding, we took the forest-path in confidence. They re- 
fused to begin the contest, us absent. Them assisting, the 
performance will be successful. 



11. Exercise, Rule XI. 

Caution I. (see Eng. Gram., p. 244). — In a series of coordinate terms, 
unless great emphasis is required, insert the conjunction between the last 
two only. 

Caution IL — In using correlatives, be careful to place both conjunc- 
tions so as to mark correctly the prominent or contrasted terms. 

Caution III. — Avoid dissimilar and disproportionate coordinate terms. 

They confess the power and wisdom and love and good- 
ness of their Creator. John and James and Henry and 
Charles will return this evening. His conduct was unkind 
and unjust and unmerciful. 

He neither came nor was sent for. AVe pervert the 
noble faculty of speech when we use it to the defaming, or 
to disquiet our neighbors. We hope that we shall hear 
from him, and that he has returned. I always have and 
I always shall be of this opinion. The work was executed 
with rapidity and promptly. It is a region distinguished 
by many charming varieties of rural scenery, and which 
may be termed the Arcadia of Scotland. He retired 
roluntarily, and a conqueror. 

Are we not lazy in our duties, or make a Christ of 



-^^ Greene's introductiox. 

them ? In many pursuits we embark with pleasure a^d 
land sorrowfully. 

It is a good which neither depends on the will of others 
nor on the affluence of external fortune. Either sentences 
are simple or compound. His fortune has not only suf- 
fered by his folly, but his health. This is not merely a 
question of interest, but of right also. 

He was not a rich man, and he is good to the poor. A 
man may smile and smile, and he is a villain. Charles V. 
retired to a convent, and chess is a fascinating game. 
Back to thy punishment, false fugitive ! and to thy speed 
you may add wings. Genius hews out its figure from the 
block, and with the sleepless chisel he gives it life. Neither 
Whigs or Tories foresaw the bad effects of the passage of 
the bill. No one gave his opinion as modestly as he. 

12. Exercise, Rules XIII. and XIT. 

Cautio:^ I. (see Eng. Gram., pp. 250, 2.51). — In expressing the relation 
between words, be careful to employ appropriate prepositions. 

Cautiox II. — Never use the nominative as the object of a preposition., 

I am engaged with my work. Mesopotamia lies among 
two rivers. I left my book to home. Come in my house. 
They insist on it that you are wrong. My friend has a 
strong prejudice to the candidate. That mother is too 
indulgent with her child. With what are you so intent ? 
We should profit from the experience of others. That boy 
is not careful with his books. With what does he excel ? 

Who you spend your evenings with is well known. Go, 
little insect: the world is wide enough for you and I. 
Mankind's antipathy for snakes is derived, some say, from 
Adam. Do you know who you are speaking to ? Gibbon 
was engaged with his great work about twenty years. 
Where shall we turn, and in whom can we rely ? Though 
a young man, he presided upon the assembly with much 
dignity. 



FALSE SYNTAX. 219 

So you must ride 
On horseback after we. 
But it were vain for you and I 
In single fight our strength to try. 



13. Exercise, Rule XT. 

Caution (see Eng. Gram., p. 254). — In using a noun or a pronoun in 
an elliptical clause following than or as, avoid both ambiguity and an 
incorrect construction. 

Who can write better than him ? Whom does he honor 
more than I ? I know James better than him. The lion 
can devour a sheep as well as a wolf. He is no better 
speller as I. 

14. Exercise, Rule XVI. 

Caution I. (see Eng. Gram., p. 257). — The preposition for should never 
be used before the infinitive employed to express motive or purpose; 

also, the sign to should not be used at the close of a sentence. 
Caution II. — Do not use the perfect for the present infinitive. 

Unless rain comes, we shall be sure for to go. I ex- 
pected to have seen you yesterday. Govern your own 
temper, and thus teach others to. As we marched through 
the streets, half the town, I should think, came out for to 
see us. With a few simple words he proved the previous 
speaker to have been mistaken. Buy the best in the 
market, or, at least, try to. While standing by the door, 
I saw the procession to pass round the corner. The colonel 
bade me to deliver this message. I should have preferred 
to have taken an outside seat. 



15. Exercise, Miscellaneous Examples. 

A new hotel is being built. — (is building.) Large sup- 
plies of these goods are being thrown upon the market. 



220 Greene's ixTRODrcTTox. 

How old are you? I am going on for twelve. — (Jn m^ 
Uvelfth year.) 

He used to ivas, used to could (vulgarisms.) 

Turn your toes out when you walk, like I do. — (a^\) 

They were not fortunate in choosing a day, like we were. 

James is not as tall as George. — (.so tall.) 

He brought home gloves and laces, and all those sort of 
things. 

The ascent was not as difficult as they feared. 

You will find these kind of apples excellent for whiter use. 

I had rather stay at home. — (would rather.) 

We ain't going to have any drones in this hive. 

It aiii't any use for a fellow like me to try. 

There is a good deal of idle capital in the country. — • 
(great deal.) 

He sent a great deal of fat cattle to Brighton. — (great 
7iumber.) 

Our minister is just recovering from a severe attackt of 
the gout. 

They attackted us in the night; and we Yanks were busy 
enough till morning, I tell you. 

You mustn't go near the water, for I'm afraid you will 
be d rounded. 

Have you milked the cows, John ? I didnt yet, sir. — 
(I haven't.) 

It was impossible to say who it was fired by. 

The pleasure of your evening's party depends very much 
upon ivho you have for company. 

Haven't you no idea who it was? 

I don't think no worse of him for that. 

You could 7iot do it justice by no description you could give. 

I reckon we shall have a dry sjjell now, after so much rain. 

The word reckon is generally used in the Southern States, as guess is in 
New England, for think. 

How old is your father? I guess he is about eighty. 



16. EXERCISE. 

The following selections are intended to illustrate paragraphs 370-373 
p. 150. For the sake of reference, the sentences are numbered. The 
questions at the end of the selection are intended as specimens of the 
variety of questions which may well be introduced into a general exercise 
on language. 

1. The tide and wind were so favorable that the ship was 
enabled to come at once to the pier. 2. It was thronged 
with people; some idle lookers-on, others eager expectants 
of friends or relatives. 3. I could distinguish the mer- 
chant to whom the ship was consigned. 4. I knew him 
by his calculating brow and restless air. 5. His hands 
were thrust into his pockets; he was whistling thought- 
fully, and walking to-and-fro, a small space having been 
accorded him by the crowd, in deference to his temporary 
importance. 6. There were repeated cheerings and salu- 
tations interchanged between the shore and the ship, as 
friends happened to recognize each other. 7. I particu- 
larly noticed one young woman of humble dress, but in- 
teresting demeanor. 8. She Avas leaning forward from 
among the crowd; her eye hurried over the ship as it 
neared the shore, to catch some wished-for countenance. 
9. She seemed disappointed and agitated, when I heard a 
faint voice call her name. 10. It was from a poor sailor, 
who had been ill all the voyage, and had excited the sym- 
pathy of every one on board. 11. When the weather was 
fine, his messmates had spread a mattress for him on deck 
in the shade; but of late his illness had so increased that 
he had taken to his hammock, and only breathed a wish 
that he might see his wife before he died. 12. He had 
been helped on deck as we came up the river, and was 
leaning against the shrouds with a countenance so wasted, 
so pale, so ghastly, that it was no wonder that even the 
eye of affection did not recognize him. 13. But at the 

221 



222 Greene's introdlxtion. 

sound of his voice her eye darted on his features; it read 
at once a whole volume of sorrow, she clasped her hands, 
uttered a faint shriek, and stood wringing them in silent 
agony. — Washington Irving. 

QUESTIONS. 

No. 1. — W^hat kind of sentence is No. 1 ? Turn it into an interrogative 
sentence, changing the sub. clause into an infinitive phrase. What 
change must be made in the connective? What change in the order of 
the words? Change it into a compound sentence, and explain the con- 
sequent change of connective. W^hich form of the sentence, the complex 
or the compound, best expresses the thought ? 

No. 2. — What class, simple or compound? Construction of "lookers- 
on" and "expectants?" Reconstruct the sentence, and employ equiva- 
lents for "thronged," and "lookers-on." 

No. 3. — Parse ** whomj" give the voice of "was consigned," and change 
the construction by making "merchant" the subject, and by dropping the 
present subject. What adverb would you add to the predicate to give 
smoothness and completeness to the sentence? 

No. 4. — Kind of sentence? W^hat element is compound? Parse "cal- 
culating." Analyze the sentence in full. Take the words in order, and 
as you pronounce each one give the rule for its construction. Pronounce 
again, and give the part of speech. Take the words in the order of their 
dependence, omitting the words which show merely connection or depen- 
dence. Thus, / — knew — him — broic, &G. 

No. 5. — Analyze the sentence, give the class. Parse " space" (See Spe- 
cial Rule under Rule XVII. p. 186). Change the construction by using 
"had been accorded" instead of "having been accorded." What con- 
nective must be added? Change the whole to a complex sentence, with 
"he was whistling" for the principal clause. 

No. 6. — Analyze this sentence. What peculiarity in the order of the 
subject and the predicate of the principal clause? Parse "there" and 
^^interchanged." Reconstruct, placing the compound subject before the 
predicate. How do you parse "interchanged" now? 

No. 7. — Parse "demeanor." To what by "of" (understood)? In how 
many of these sentences does the writer introduce himself? In what oneis < 
does no reference to him appear? (See 69 and ISO). 

No. 8. — If this were changed into a complex sentence by dropping "she 
was," what would "leaning" be joined to? Would such a construction be 
admissible? Would the construction be correct if instead of "her eye 
hurried over" we insert, "she eagerly surveyed?" 

No. 9. — Analyze and parse in full. It has the form of a complex sen, 
tence; is it truly one? Exchange "when" for "just then," and what is it? 



FALSE SYNTAX. 223 

No. 10. — What kind of sentence is this? What kind of predicate has 
the subordinate clause? Parse 'Woyage/^ (409) *Svho/' ''of late/' '* Sw — 
that/' ''before." 

No. 11. — Analyze, and then reconstruct it, making three full sentences 
from it. 

Nos. 12 AND 13. — Parse all the nouns, all the prepositions, and all the 
coordinate and subordinate connectives. Explain the punctuation in 
each sentence. 

Analyze and parse (change the construction of) the following sen- 
tences: — 

^' The plumage of the mocking-bird, though none of the 
homeliest, has nothing gaudy or brilliant in it; and had 
he nothing else to recommend him, would scarcely entitle 
him to notice; but his figure is well-proportioned, and 
even handsome. The ease, elegance, and rapidity '^f his 
movements, the animation of his eye, and the intelligence 
he displays in listening, and laying up lessons from almost 
every species of the feathered creation within his hearing, 
are really surprising, and mark the peculiarity of his 
genius." 

*' Little Nell was dead. No sleep so beautiful and 
calm, so free from trace of pain, so fair to look upon. 
She seemed a creature fresh from the hand of God, and 
waiting for the breath of life; not one who had lived, and 
suffered death. ' Her couch was dressed with here and 
there some winter-berries and green leaves, gathered in a 
spot she had been used to favor. 'When I die, put near 
me something that has loved the light, and had the sky 
above it always.' Those were her words." 

" Knowledge and Wisdom, far from being one. 
Have ofttimes no connection. Knowledge dwells 
In heads replete with thoughts of other men ; 
Wisdom, in minds attentive to their own. 



224 Greene's introduction. 

Knowledge — a rude, unprofitable mass, 
The mere materials with which Wisdom builds, 
Till smoothed, and squared, and fitted to its place — 
Does but encumber whom it seems to enrich! 
Knowledge is proud that he has learned so much, 
Wisdom is humble that he knows no more." 

** So live, that, wdien thy summons comes to join 
The innumerable caravan, that moves 
To that mysterious realm, where each shall take 
His chamber in the silent halls of death, 
Thou go not, like the quarry-slave, at night 
Scourged to his dungeon, but, sustained and soothed 
By an unfaltering trust, approach thy grave, 
Like one who wraps the drapery of his couch 
About him, and lies down to pleasant dreams." 

"One of the rarest powers possessed by man is the power 
to state a fact. It seems a very simple thing to tell the 
truth; but, beyond all question, there is nothing half so 
easy as lying. To comprehend a fact in its exact length, 
breadth, relations, and significance, and to state it in lan- 
guage that shall represent it wdth exact fidelity, are the 
works of a mind singularly gifted , finely balanced, and 
thoroughly practiced in that special department of effort." 

*'Tell me, man of military science, in how many months 
were the Pilgrims all swept ofi" by the thirty savage tribes,' 
enumerated wuthin the early limits of New England? Tell 
me, politician, how long did this shadow of a colony, on 
w^hich your conventions and treaties had not smiled, lan- 
guish on the distant coast? Student of history, compare 
for me the baffled projects, the abandoned adventures of 
other times, and find a parallel of this." 



APPENDIX. 



Lest the inexperienced teacher should suppose that the 
merit of these exercises is dependent upon the particular 
form of giving them, it should be said, once for all, that it 
is the spirit, rather than the mere method, which gives value 
to the lesson. The chief object is secured when the children 
are led to realize the distinction to be made, from primitive 
sources, namely, the examples and specimens which contain 
it. The teacher guides their observations, and by well-di- 
rected questions leads to the desired conclusion. The three 
full methods below, for Lessons L, XIV., and XXVIII., 
have been furnished by one of the most successful teachers 
in one of our best normal schools. 

METHOD FOR TEACHING LESSON I. 

The teacher comes before the class having many objects at hand, but 
concealed from the children, — as an apple, a knife, a bell, a rose, some 
sugar, tfcc. ka. 

Teacher shows an apple to the class, and asks, What is 
this? 

Children. — An apple. 

Teacher (to one child). — Mary, how do you know this 
is an apple ? 

Child. — I can see it. 

The teacher calls upon other children to tell how they know it is an 
apple. After the children have stated, the teacher proceeds and pursues 
the same plan in regard to other objects. 

Teacher then tells several children to close their eyes, 
and, handing one of them a knife, says, What have you ? 

16 226 



:?26 GREENKS INTRODUCTION. 

Child. — A knife. 

The teacher then has each child, Tvith closed eyes, take the knife and 
state what he has, — the children with eyes open deciding that they are 

right. 

Teacher then asks the first child \yho said it was a 
knife, How did you know that was a knife that you held 
in your hand ? 

Child. — I could feel that it was a knife. 

The teacher has the other children who held the knife state similarly, 
and then pursues the same plan with several other objects. 

Teacher requests all the children to close their eyes, 
and then rings a bell, and_, naming one child, says to him, 
What have I now ? 

Child. — A bell. 

Teacher. — What makes you think it is a bell ? 

Child. — I can hear it. 

Other children state that the teacher has a bell. 

The children then open their eyes, and decide by seeing, feeling, and 
hearing it that it is a bell. A similar plan is pursued with other objects 

Teacher has the children close their eyes again, and, 
holding a fragrant rose under the nose of one of them, 
says, What have I now ? 

Child. — A rose. 

Teacher has other children answer same question by a similar test, 
then has children open their eyes aad decide by seeing it that it is a rose. 

Teacher asks one of the children that stated it was a 
rose, How did you know that was a rose, when your eyes 
Avere closed? 

Child. — I could smell it. 

Other children give same reason. 

The teacher pursues a similar plan with other objects. 
The children again close their eyes, the teacher puts a little 
sugar on the tongue of several of them, and asks, What 
^lave you in your mouth ? 

Children. — Sugar. 



APPENDIX. 2^7 

The children open their eyes, and decide by seeing, smelling, feeling, 
and tasting that it is sugar. 

Teacher (to one of the children that said it was sugar, 
when their eyes were closed). — What made you think that 
was sugar, when your eyes were closed ? 

Child. — I could taste it. 

other children state similarly. 

The teacher pursues a similar plan with other objects. 

Teacher, pointing to the objects lying on the table, 
says, What are these ? 

Children. — Rose, sugar, knife, &c. &c. 

Teacher. — Yes ; but, without naming each, what can 
you call all of them ? 

Children. — Things. 

Teacher. — What have you found you can do with these 
things? 

Children. — We can see them, or feel them ; some of 
them we can hear, some we can smell, and some we can 
taste. 

Teacher. — Then these things are things that we can — 

Children. — Things that we can see, feel, hear, smell, 
or taste. 

The children recite this statement simultaneously. 

Teacher. — Who knows a name for these things that 
we can see, feel, hear, taste, or smell ? 

If children cannot tell, the teacher tells them we call them objects. 
Children repeat the word. 

Teacher. — What are objects? 

Children. — Those things which we can see, feel, hear, 
smell, or taste are called objects. 

The teacher has different children recite this statement individually, 
and then the class recite it. 

The teacher then writes the statement upon the board as the children 
spell the more difficult words. 

The teacher then questions the children upon the statement; after 
which it is erased. 



228 Greene's introductiqn. 

The children are then required to tell what objects are, to name various 
objects, and tell why they call them objects, and also tell whether they 
ean see, hear, feel, smell, or taste them. 

The teacher then names objects, and the children tell whether they can 
see, hear, feel, smell, or taste them. Also, the children are required to 
name objects which they can see, some which they can hear, some which 
they can feel, smell, or taste. After this, assign Lesson I., p. 8. 

LESSON II. 

The methods of appeal to a child's menial experience are 
simple. Call up any occurrence familiar to both teacher 
and pupil, as a walk in the city, a visit to a steamer, to a 
museum, &c., or a stroll in the fields, a skating scene, or 
any other actual event fresh in the memory of the child, 
and draw from him the acknowledgment that now the whole 
scene seems to be present in his mind. Then apply test- 
questions upon the various objects in the scene. This is 
the counterpart to Lesson I. In that we have objects pre- 
sent to the senses; here we have views or mental pictures 
of objects present to the mind. 

LESSON III. 

In this lesson, the teacher at first employs, in contrast, 
the actual object as now seen, and the mental picture of it, 
or what seems to be seen when the object is put out of sight. 
He then leads the children to bring before the mind's eye 
objects at a distance, which were once seen, but now seem to 
be seem Finally, he draws from them, or tells them, that 
what we thus seem to see are called ideas. To cultivate the 
habit of correctness and accuracy, he will subject their ideas 
to various tests, as to the form, color, measure, situation, &c. 
of the real objects. 

LESSON IV. 

To remind others of an object which we see, we may point 
lo it ; but to remind them of one which we think of but 



APPENDIX. 229 

do not see, we must use a sign. Lead the class to con- 
clude that a word, as a sign, expresses or points out an idea 
to others. 

LESSON V. 

Our ideas do not stand aloiie ; they come in groups. We 
cannot think of snow without thinking of it as white, eold, 
&c. Let the pupil see that he thinks of a living thing — a 
bird, for example — as doing something. He thinks of the 
two together, and in telling what he thinks he says something 
of the bird or object he thinks of. Draw from him this 
conclusion. 

LESSON VL 

The pupiFs attention is here directed to the group of words 
which expresses his thought. Let him, by examples, con- 
trast this kind of group with another, in which nothing is 
said or affirmed, until he is prepared to be told that the 
words which tell or express a thought form a sentence. 

LESSON VII. 

The pupil will readily see, by examples, that he may 
not only think, but say, several things of one object, or 
one thing of several objects. 

LESSON VIII. 
Let the pupil see that when he speaks of this or that 
individual object he must give it an individual name, or 
a descriptive name that will represent it as an individual. 
Thus, to utter the word booh would give to the child no idea 
of an individual or particular booh. But " that brown book 
on William's desk'' would point out the individual book 
meant. Examples should be multiplied till the case is 
made clear. 

LESSON IX. 
This lesson calls attention to the office of the words em- 



230 

ployed in Lesson VIII., — one as principal, and the others 
clustering around it to limit its application. Let the pupils 
derive the conclusion from illustrations and examples. 

LESSON X. 

This lesson requires the pupil to think of the meaning 
of a sentence as a whole. Examples will enable him to 
distinguish the classes. 

LESSON XL 
The important work of writing sentences has already 
commenced, or is now to be taken up with the purpose of 
making it ^practical means of expressing thoughts. The 
teacher will introduce other rules and cautions in addition 
to those in the lesson. Let these be thoroughly learned 
and always put to practice. 

LESSONS XII. AND XIII. 

Can be easily illustrated and explained. They are the first 
practical separations of a sentence into its parts. These are 
(not in the technical sense) parts of speech. The teacher 
may combine with this the further separation of these tw^o 
parts into jyrincipal and limiting, as in Lesson IX. But in 
this case no attention is to be paid to the words as parts of 
speech, but only as used to represent the subject or the jore- 
dicate, or to show in what sense these are limited. 

LESSONS XIV.— XXVII. 

Open to the pupil the idea of classifying words, and of point- 
ing out their uses in the sentence. In fact, the classification 
depends partly upon the meaning and partly upon the use 
of w^ords. The Model for XIV., with some variations, will 
serve as a hint for all the rest. The main point is to show 
the basis of the classification, and to make a clear distinc- 
tion between the word and that which it represents. 



. APPENDIX. 231 

METHOD FOR LESSON XIV. 

Teacher (pointing to one of the class). — Who is this? 
Children. — Mary. 

The children spell the word, as the teacher writes it upon the black- 
board. 

Teacher (holding a pencil in the hand). — What have I? 
Children. — A pencil. 

The teacher writes as the children spell. 

Teacher (touching the table). — What is this? 
Children. — The table. 

In a similar manner the teacher obtftins and writes upon the board — 

the children spelling — chair, rubber, knife, John, hook, apple, , 

, , , in all some twenty or thirty names. 

Teacher (pointing to the words on the board). — What 
are these ? 

Children. — Words. 

Teacher (pointing to the word Mary). — What is this? 

Children. — The word Mary. 

Teacher. — When jo\x say Mary, whom do you mean ? 

Children. — That girl (pointing). 

Teacher. — How do we all know you mean her ? 

Children. — Because Mary is her name. 

Teacher. — What have you learned about this word ? 

Children.— The word Mary is the name of that girl. 

Teacher (pointing to the word pencil). — What is thi^ f 

Children. — The word pencil. 

Teacher. — What do you mean by this word? 

Children. — That pencil (pointing to it). 

Teacher (laying pencil on the table, so as to use this 
word and that pencil).— This word pencil is what of that 
pencil ? 

Children. — The name of the pencil. 

Let the whole class make this decision, and give it both individuaLly 



•i:^2 GREENE S INTRODUCTION. 

and simultaneously, and let the teacher continue the same plan with the 
other words. 

Teacher (pointing to the list of words). — What have 
you found of these ? 

Children. — They are words; and are names of a girly 
a pencil, sl table, a chair, &c. 

Teacher. — What have you already learned to call girls^ 
pencils, tables, &c. ? 

Children. — Objects. 

Teacher. — Then you can say these words are — what ? 

Children. — They are names of objects. 

Let each pupil make this decision. 

Teacher. — Each w^ord is — what ? 

Children. — Each w^ord is the name of an object. 

Let this be impressed upon the class by individual or simultaneous 
recitation. 

Teacher. — What do we call a word that is the name 
of an object? 

Children (hesitatingly). — An object-word; (perhaps 
some) the name of an object. 

Teacher. — Yes; an object-word, or, which means the 
same, a noun. 

The children repeat the word. 

Teacher. — What is a noun ? 

Children. — The name of an object is a noun. See 29, 
Lesson XIV. 

The teacher, erasing all from the board, will review the whole, by ask- 
ing for the meaning of noun, name, object; also, for examples of nouns. 
Then, turning to Lesson XIV., and giving out the Exercise (30), let 2, 4, 
and 5 be done upon the slate. 

Note. — It will be understood that these are oljecta to the senaei. 
Objects of thought should be brought forward gradually. 



APPENDIX. 233 



METHOD FOR LESSON XXVIII. 

The teacher requests the children to give some nouns. 

Children pronounce and spell, and the teacher writes upon the boardj 
the following or others, about twenty or thirty in all : John, stove, Pro- 
ridence, pencil, boy, table, city, Sarah, &g. &g. 

Teacher (pointing to the words). — What are these? 

Children. — Words ; nouns. 

Teacher. — Why are they nouns ? 

Children. — Because they are names of objects. 

Teacher. — Then each word is — what ? 

Children. — Each word is the name of an object. 

Teacher (pointing to the word John). — This word is 
the name of what object? 

Child. — It is his name (pointing to the boy John). 

Teacher. — Why do you say it is his name ? 

Child. — Because that name belongs to him. 

Teacher. — How came he to have that name ? (or, How 
did he get that name ?) 

Child. — It was given to him. 

Teacher. — Instead of saying it was given to him, or it 
belongs to him,- we may say the name applies to him. 

The children repeat the word applies. 

Teacher. — What have you learned of this word John ? 
Child. — That it is a noun, and is a name that applies to 
the boy John. 

Children repeat statement. 

The teacher pursues the same plan with other proper nouns, the chil- 
dren stating similar conclusion of each. 

Teacher (pointing to the word Providence).— What 
have you learned of this ? 

Child. — That it is a noun, and is the name that applies 
to the city of Providence. 

Teacher. — To what other city does it apply? 

Child. — To no other city. 



234 Greene's introduction. 

Teacher. — Instead of saying the noun Providence ap- 
plies to the city of Providence, and to no other city, you 
can say it applies to which city ? 

Child. — To just that city alone. 

The same plan should be pursued with other proper nouns, the childreH 
saying that the noun John a]i)plies to just one boy, the noun Sarah to just 
one girl, &q. &c. 

Teacher. — What are cities, boys, girls, &c.? 

Child. — Objects. 

Teacher. — Then you can say each of these nouns ap- 
plies to what ? 

Child. — To just one object. 

Teacher. — Instead of saying just one object, we may 
say an individual object. 

Teacher. — What may we say ? 

Child. — An individual object. 

The children repeat individual object. 

Teacher (pointing to proper nouns). — What have you 
learned of these words ? 

Child. — Each is a noun which applies to an individual 
object. 

Teacher. — What kind of a noun do we call such a 
noun? 

If children do not know (as it cannot be expected they will), the 
teacher tells them that such a noun is a proper noun, because proper 
means applying to an individual as his oicn. 

The children repeat the word 2~>roper. 

Teacher. — What is a proper noun ? 
Child. — A noun which is applied to an individual object 
is a proper noun. 

The teacher has the children recite this definition separately and to- 
gether. The children spell the more difficult words, and the teacher writes 
the statement on the board. 

Teacher (pointing to the word boy). — What is this? 
Child. — The word boy is a noun. 



APPENDIX. 235 

Teachek. — What have you learned of this noun ? 

Child. — It is a name which applies to an object. 

Teacher. — To what object? 

Child. — To a boy. 

Teacher. — To w^hich boy ? 

Childre:n'. — To any boy ; to every boy ; to each boy. 

Teacher. — To each boy of what? (or, of how many 
boys ?) 

Child. — To each boy of all the boys. 

Teacher. — What may you call the boys together ? 

Child. — A lot of boys. A crowd of boys, &c. 

Teacher. — Yes; but what do you call a number of 
them together in school ? 

Child. — A class of boys. 

Teacher. — Yes. Then what can we call all the boys 
together ? 

Child. — A class of boys. 

Teacher. — What have you learned of this word (boy)? 

Child. — That it is a noun, and may apply to each one 
of the whole class of boys. 

The teacher pursues the same plan with other common nouns, the 
children making similar statements of each and then of all. 

Teacher.— What are boys, stoves, &c. ? 

Child. — Obj ects. 

Teacher. — Then what can you say, instead of naming 
boys, stoves, &c. ? 

Child. — Objects. 

Teacher. — What have you learned, then, of each of 
these (pointing to boy, stove, &c.) ? 

Child.^ — Each is a noun that may apply to each one of 
a class of objects. 

Teacher. — What can you say instead of one, here ? 

Child. — Individual. 

Teacher. — Yes. Give the whole statement. 



236 GREENE'S INTRODUCTION. 

Child. — Each is a noun that may apply to each indir 
vidual of a class of objects. 

Teacher.- — What kind of a noun is such a noun ? 

The teacher here tells the children what it means for several persons 
to have any thing (as a name, here) in common, and says, Such a noun is 
called a common noun. 

The children repeat the word common. 

Teacher. — What is a common noun ? 
Child. — A noun which may apply to each individual of O' 
class of objects is a common noun. 

The children recite the definition individually and simultaneously, and 
spell the more difficult words. 

The teacher writes the statement on the board, then has the children 
read both statements from the board, and asks questions upon them. 

The teacher then erases them, and has the children state what a proper 
noun is, what a common noun is, and give examples of each kind, stating 
ichy in each case. 

The teacher also gives words, requiring the children to select the nouns, 
and tell whether they are common or proper, and why in each case. 

;N^ote. — Observe here that the common noun is developed in the sin- 
gular number. Let the children see that if it applies to each it applies 
to any tioo or more considered together. But this is best done when the 
subject of number is developed by a similar method. In these first deve- 
lopments the aim should be to unfold the prominent points, rather than t© 
secure exhaustive definitioni* 



INDEX. 



The numbers refer to the numbered paragraphs. 



A- or an, 216. 

fldjeetive, defined, 39, 167, 209. 

limiting, 210. 

qualifying, 210. 

pronominal, 218. 

numeral, 219. 

as predicate, 41, 380. 

as modifier, 43, 388. 

rule for, 375. 

comparison of, 222. 

participial, 50, 413, Eem. 2. 
Adjective element, 361, 387, 388. 
Adverb, defined, 52, 170, 314. 

classes of, 315. 

modal, 315. 

conjunctive, 315. 

comparison of, 316. 

construction of, 402. 

rule for, 375, 402. 
Adverbial element, 361, 402. 
Adversative conjunction, 325. 
Afl&rm, how employed, 342. 
Agreement of pronouns, 375. 

of verbs, 275, 380. 
Alexandrine verse, 430. 
Alphabet, 132. 

Alternative conjunctions, 325. 
Analysis, 27, 369. 
Anapaest, 423, 426. 
Antecedent, 238. 
Apostrophe, 458. 
Apposition, 389. 
Article, 214. 
Aspirate, 129, 135. 
Attribute, defined, 343. 

assumed, 345. 



Attribute, predicated, 345. 

used to modify, 346. 
Auxiliaries, 306. 

Blank verse, 421. 
Brackets, 457. 

Capitals, 469. 
Caret, 22, 461. 
Case, defined, 80, 199. 

nominative, 81, 201. 

possessive, 82, 202, 204. 

objective, 83, 203. 

rules for, 375. 
Clause, 309, Eem. 
Colon, 447. 
Comma, 444, 445. 
Common form of verb, 298. 

metre, 431. 

noun, 60, 175. 
Comparison, 109, 222. 

positive degree of, 110, 223. 

comparative, 110, 224, 226. 

superlative, 110, 225. 
Complex sentence, 355. 
Compound word, 160. 

personal pronoun, 234. 

relative pronoun, 242. 

element, 366. 

sentence, 355. 
Conjugation, defined, 304. 

verb to he, 308. 

verb love, 310. 
Conjunction, defined, 56, 321. 

division of, 322, 406. 

coordinate, 406. 

2-^7 



0'R9 



INDEX. 



Conjunction, subordinate, 324. 
Conjunctive adverbs, 315. 
Consonants, 134. 

union of, 141. 

union with vowel, 142. 
Construction, rules of, 375. 

influence of elements in, 360. 
Coordinate connectives, 323. 

elements, 360, Rem. 3. 

rule for, 406. 

series, 445. 

couplet, 445. 
Copulative conjunctions, 325. 

Dactyl, 427. 

Dactylic verse, 439. 

Dash, 449. 

Declarative sentences, 334. 

Declension of nouns, 206. 

of pronouns, 236, 244. 
Defective verbs, 254. 
Diphthong, 143. 
Dissyllable, 155. 

proper, 144. 

improper, 145. 

Elementary sounds, 125. 
Elements of a sentence, 358. 

principal, subordinate, 359. 

first, second, and third classes, 
363. 

simple, complex, and com- 
pound, 366. 

substantive, adjective, and 
adverbial, 361. 

separation of, 444. 
Ellipsis, 463. 

Emphatic form of the verb, 299. 
Equivalents, 136. 
Etymology, 121, 162. 
Exclamation point, 455; 



Exclamatory sentences, 337. 

Foot, 422. 

Forms of the verb, 296. 
Future tense, 102, 293. 
perfect, 294. 

Gender, defined, 74, 193. 

methods of distinguishing, 
197. 
Grammar, defined, 118. 

Heroic verse, 430- 
Hyphen, 462. 

Iambic verse, 429, 
Iambus, defined, 424. 
Idea, 6, 8. 
Imperative mode, 96, 271, 

sentences, 336. 
Impersonal verb, 256. 
Indicative mode, 93, 268. 
Infinitive, 97, 272. 

rule for, 413. 

special rule, 413. 
Interjection, 57, 328- 
Interrogation point, 454. 
Interrogative pronounS; 243. 

sentences, 335. 
Irregular verbs, defined, 253, 

list-:of, 312. 

Letter, defined, 131. 

silent, 138. 

variable, 137. 
List of prepositions, 319. 

irregular verbs, 312. 
Long metre, 432. 

Modal adverbs, 315. 
Mode, defined, 266. 



i:n^dex. 



239 



Monosyllables, 154. 

Nominative case, 81, 201. 

absolute, 413. 
Noun, defined, 29, 174. 

cases of, 175. 

properties of, 179. 

as subject, 31, 377. 

as attribute, 33, 380. 

in apposition, 31, 389. 

in the passive, 389. 

as object of transitive verb, 
399. 

as object of preposition, 409. 

participial, 274. 
Number, defined, 62, 186. 

of the pronoun, 235. 

of the verb, 302. 

Objects, 1, 4, 16. 

Object of transitive verb, 399. 

of preposition, 409. 
Orthography, 124. 

Parentheses, 450. 
Parsing, 113. 

plan of, 114, 115, 116. 
Participle, defined, 46, 274. 

as adjective, 50, 413. 

kinds of, 275. 

rule for (general and spe- 
cial), 413. 
Parts of speech, 112, 165. 
Passive form, 301. 
Passive voice, 263. 
Past tense, 291. 

perfect tense, 292. 
Period, 452. 
Person, defined, 180. 
Personal pronouns, 232. 

declension, 236. 



Phrase, 409. 

Plural of nouns, 64, 187. 

how formed, 190, 191. 
Points, punctuation, 441. 
Polysyllable, 157. 
Possessive case, defined, 202, 

formation of, 204. 

construction of, 389. 
Potential mode, 269. 
Predicate, 25, 342. 

construction of, 380. 
Preposition, defined, 54, 318. 

list of, 319. 

rule for, 409. 

object of, 409. 
Present tense, 289. 

perfect tense, 290. 
Principal parts of the verb, 307. 
Progressive form of the \er\ 

300. 
Pronoun, defined, 37, 230. 

personal, 71, 232. 

compound personal, 234. 

declension of, 236, 

relative, 23K. 

interrogative, 243. 

agreement of, 386. 
Proposition, defined, 340. 

kinds of, 348. 
Prosody, defined, 416. 
Punctuation, defined, 440. 

marks of, 441. 

Quotation-marks, 459. 

Redundant verbs, 257. 
Regular verb, 252. 
Relatives, simple, 239. 

compound, 242. 
Ray me, 420. 
Rules of construction, 375. 



240 



liS'DEX. 



Scanning, 428. 
Semicolon, 447. 
Sentence, defined, 12, 332. 

kinds of, 20, 333, 354. 
Short metre, 432. 
Simple element, 336. 

sentence, 354. 
Subject, defined, 24, 341. 

construction of, 377. 
Subjunctive mode, 270. 
Subordinate connectives, 324. 

rule for, 406. 

elements, 359, 360. 
Subvocals, 128. 
Superlative, 225. 
Syllable, defined, 150. 

essential part of, 151. 
Synopsis, 309. 
Syntax, defined, 331. 

Tense, defined, 284. 

present, 289. 

present perfect, 290. 

past, 291. 

past perfect, 292. 

future, 293. 

future perfect, 294. 

formation of, 103. 
The, 215. 

To, when omitted, 413. 
Transitive verb, 249. 
Triphthong, defined, 146. 

proper, 147. 

improper, 148. 
Trisyllable, 156. 
Trochaic verse, 434. 



Trochee, 425. 
Union of vowels, 145. 

Verb, defined, 45, 247. 

transitive, 249. 

intransitive, 250. 

regular, 252. 

irregular, 253. 

defective, 254. 

auxiliary, 255. 

impersonal, 256. 

redundant, 257. 

forms of, 296. 

list of irregular, 312 

number and person of, 3C2. 

conjugation of, 304. 

principal parts of, 307. 

synopsis of, 309. 

agreement with subject, 380. 
Verse, defined, 418. 

kinds of, 419. 
Versification, 417. 
Vocals, 127. 
Voice, 260. 
Vowel-marks, 468. 
Vowels, 133. 

union of, 145. 

Words, 8, 153, 163. 
classes of, 164. 
syntax of, 376. 
principal and limiting, 18, 
primitive, 158. 
derivative, 159. 
compound, 160. 



THE END. 



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